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Functional communication training (FCT) is a well-established, evidence-based practice used to address challenging behavior among individuals across settings, ages, and disability categories. However, the research is limited on the implementation of FCT in inclusive school settings for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. The purpose of this review was to summarize FCT intervention studies implemented in inclusive K-12 school settings for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. We synthesized studies to summarize study characteristics, quality, and intervention effectiveness. Our findings suggest that FCT was most often implemented as part of a multi-component intervention package and delivered by education team members. Furthermore, the quality of most studies was either acceptable or strong. The overall effect size estimate for primary dependent measures as measured by Tau-U suggested large to very large changes in student behavior. We present implications for practice specific to educational teams that support the behavioral needs of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities in inclusive settings and offer avenues for future research.

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who have extensive support needs (ESN) may require support to develop appropriate social behavior. School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) is an evidence-based framework to support the social and behavioral needs of all students. As an evidence-based practice commonly used as a Tier 2 support within SWPBIS, check-in/check-out (CICO) has improved social behavior among students with and without disabilities. However, the literature on the efficacy of CICO does not include students with ASD who have ESN. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of traditional and adapted CICO as a Tier 2 support within the SWPBIS framework on the adherence to school-wide expectations and challenging behavior of four elementary students with ASD who have ESN. Results of this multiple baseline across participants design study were inconclusive regarding challenging behavior and adherence to school-wide expectations across participants. Further, social validity data collected from all participants indicated the intervention was feasible and an overall positive experience.

Although special education teachers are expected to implement evidence-based practices, teachers of students with extensive support needs have reported challenges in identifying and implementing effective practices to meet the unique needs of their students. Systematic instruction has been identified as an evidence-based practice for students with extensive support needs and can be used to support students across a wide range of skill domains. We used an experimental pretest-posttest design to examine the effectiveness of two training approaches, video performance feedback and video self-monitoring, on the implementation of systematic instruction among pre-service special education teachers. Overall, both approaches resulted in improved implementation of systematic instruction by pre-service special education teachers and were viewed as socially valid. We present directions for future research and implications for practice in special education teacher preparation.

Students with extensive support needs (ESN) benefit from inclusion in general education settings with their same-age peers. Many teachers, however, report feeling overwhelmed and underprepared to effectively educate students with ESN within general education settings. To mitigate this, we must ensure that content related to the instruction and inclusion of students with ESN in general education settings is included in the introductory special education courses taken by preservice general education teachers, which we refer to as "SPED 101." Our research team surveyed 302 instructors of SPED 101 courses in general education baccalaureate teacher preparation programs at institutions of higher education across the United States. Data suggest that most instructors cover content related to the instruction and the inclusion of students with ESN, although the extent to which content is addressed varies among instructors, indicating inconsistencies in course content, delivery, and instruction. Limitations, implications, and future research are discussed.

Although behavior analytic practices have been widely applied in schools to support students with disabilities, there remains limited guidance concerning utilization of these practices in inclusion-oriented schools and, more specifically, the role of the board certified behavior analyst in the provision of related services. The goal of this article is to encourage discussions among stakeholders hopefully leading to a clearer conceptualization and more effective utilization of behavior analytic practices in inclusion-oriented schools. In addition to discussing the conceptualization of behavior analytic services as a related service and the role of both board certified assistant behavior analysts and registered behavior technicians as paraprofessionals under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, we provide a set of guidelines for related services decision-making practices useful within a collaborative teamwork framework, including behavior analysts, and offer areas for future research.

School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) is an inclusive multi-tiered system of behavioral supports that has been widely adopted by K-12 schools in the United States. SWPBIS focuses on creating safe, equitable, and inclusive school environments and has been linked to both positive behavioral and academic outcomes for students and improved perceptions of efficacy and job satisfaction for school personnel. However, there remain concerns about the involvement of students with extensive support needs (ESN) in SWPBIS despite calls to action in 2006 and 2016 for research in this area. Addressing these concerns, we conducted a scoping review to examine the current research literature on SWPBIS and students with ESN. We found that only 10 studies have been conducted since the 2006 call to action. Studies primarily focused on stakeholder perspectives regarding the importance or availability of SWPBIS for students with ESN. Although few studies examined SWPBIS effectiveness, findings from these studies lend support to the effectiveness of Tier 1 SWPBIS for students with ESN. We describe several key implications for supporting the inclusion of students with ESN in SWPBIS and future research initiatives.

Special education teachers are tasked with meeting the unique academic, social, vocational, and communication needs of students with extensive support needs. However, studies have shown that pre-service special education teachers vary in their preparedness to address the needs of students with extensive support needs who also have complex communication needs. The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of faculty experts in relation to preparing special education teachers to work with this unique population of learners. Through qualitative inquiry, we interviewed nine faculty experts about the current state of their teacher preparation programs, the barriers they experience within their programs, and ideal teaching and learning conditions for their pre-service special education teachers. Our findings indicate that special education teachers may not leave their programs sufficiently prepared to support students with extensive support needs who have complex communication needs, a finding that may be attributed to the lack of quality field placements and dedicated coursework and financial restrictions at the student, college, and university levels. Faculty experts shared strategies to enhance coursework and ensure meaningful placements through partnerships.

Functional communication training (FCT) is an evidence-based practice for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that can be implemented by practitioners in school settings. However, few studies have explored effective and sustainable training approaches to support paraeducators in their implementation of FCT. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of special education teacher-delivered training on paraeducator implementation of FCT for students with ASD. Paraeducator FCT implementation included delivery of a teacher-identified response prompting system to teach a predetermined functionally equivalent communicative response. All paraeducators delivered FCT with high levels of implementation after receiving training, with two paraeducators requiring additional follow-up coaching to meet the criteria for mastery. We present implications for practice and future research directions as it relates to developing effective training systems for paraeducators who support students with ASD.

For most students with intellectual disability (ID), education in the least restrictive environment has been determined to be separate special education classrooms. One means to promote greater participation in general education classrooms is for educators to identify and arrange individualized supports that students need to be successful. We conducted focus group interviews with 33 educators in 6 schools from 3 states to explore how they currently plan supports for their students, obtain their opinions on the usefulness of a systematic problem-solving process for supports planning, and gather their perspectives on resources, including the nature of technical assistance, that would be most helpful in planning individualized supports. Themes from the focus group interview transcripts were identified and recommendations for increasing educator competencies in planning and monitoring individualized supports for students with ID in general education classrooms are provided.

There is a research-to-practice gap in the identification and use of evidence-based practices in special education. One way to better understand the persistent gap between research and practice and to inform professional development efforts is through gaining an understanding of teacher and paraprofessional perceptions. We conducted a survey study to identify paraprofessionals' perceived skills and needs regarding categories of practices aligning with evidence-based practices for students with autism spectrum disorder. A total of 768 paraprofessionals completed the survey. We used descriptive statistics, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs), post hoc analyses, and chi-square tests to analyze paraprofessionals' responses. Paraprofessionals reported a range of responses and several of their responses differed significantly in relation to their experience and the population of students they supported. Findings suggest there is a need to individualize professional development based on both classroom and paraprofessional training needs. Future research is needed to determine how paraprofessionals' perceptions align with their practice.

We explored the involvement of students with extensive support needs (ESN) in School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS). We interviewed 15 administrators and special and general educators from elementary schools implementing SWPBIS during the 2019-2020 school year and analyzed responses using qualitative content analysis. In spite of reported challenges related to student characteristics and low expectations among school personnel, participants indicated that students with ESN were taught school-wide expectations and received public acknowledgement at Tier 1, often with adaptations and evidence-based practices, and were considered for Tier 2. Although participants reported commitment to inclusion as a central aspect of SWPBIS, inclusion primarily occurred outside academic classrooms, which limited student involvement across SWPBIS activities. Finally, few participants indicated that students with ESN were involved in SWPBIS data collection activities. Implications include that schools should systematically include students with ESN in all tiers of SWPBIS in such a way that focuses on students' meaningful benefit rather than solely on their physical inclusion and create systems that ensure special and general educators collaborate in SWPBIS implementation. Our findings provide a framework for future studies to identify conditions and effective strategies that ensure SWPBIS benefits all students.

Students with extensive support needs often require intensive individualized instruction across domains. Research suggests that students with extensive support needs can achieve greater independence when evidence-based practices are used to teach independent transitioning skills. This study investigated the effects of video self-modeling (VSM) and the system of least prompts (SLP) on independent completion of transitional routines for a student with extensive support needs in inclusive school settings. Using VSM and SLP, the student learned to complete three transitional routines with greater independence. Generalization of independent transitioning skills to music class was also measured. Results showed a functional relation between the VSM/SLP intervention and independent completion of transitional routines. The findings of this study provide several implications for practice for using VSM and SLP as a combined intervention to increase independent transitioning skills for students who previously relied on adult assistance to make transitions along with general education peers.

Many students with extensive support needs (ESN) benefit from specific instruction as well as a range of communication supports to develop effective communication repertoires and fully participate in their educational experience. Although evidence-based practices and supports addressing the communication needs of students with ESN have been identified, there remain concerns about whether preservice special education teachers have been adequately prepared to implement them. The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of preservice special education teachers related to their preparation in communication instruction for students with ESN. Participants reported varying levels of preparedness and a range of experiences in terms of the quantity and content of coursework and opportunities to apply knowledge and skills within their programs. We present implications for future research directions and teacher preparation programs.

Purpose: Although there is a strong evidence base supporting the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) in school settings, the research-to-practice gap in this area remains a concern. Few studies have examined how AAC systems are implemented in school settings and whether these systems adequately promote communicative competence for students with complex communication needs. The aim of this case study was to better understand the ways in which elementary-age students with complex communication needs used AAC throughout daily routines. Method: Observations of five students, four receiving services under the category of autism and one under intellectual disability, in school settings were conducted to document the communication function, type of AAC systems used, and the times and activities during which AAC systems were accessible. In addition, supplemental interviews were conducted to understand the rationale for AAC implementation from the perspective of the special education teacher and speech-language pathologist. Results: Overall, findings from the observations and interviews indicated that a variety of AAC modes were utilized. Interactions represented a range of communicative functions, with the exception of social closeness, and were primarily observed during academic activities. However, there were some discrepancies between observations and interview data. Conclusions: Although these findings provide insight into how students with complex communication needs may use AAC in elementary school settings, more research is needed to explore AAC use across a range of students, classrooms, and schools. We present specific future research directions, along with implications and recommendations for AAC teams and researchers.

Schools have continued to rely on paraeducators to assist special education teachers and other professionals in the provision of special education and related services. Although paraeducators often support students with extensive support needs (ESN) in a range of school environments, the subset of intervention studies focused on paraeducators who support students with ESN in inclusive settings has not been systematically reviewed. The purpose of this literature review was to synthesize single-case research studies involving paraeducator-delivered interventions for students with ESN in inclusive school environments. Our findings suggest that research primarily has focused on communication and social skills interventions that involved paraeducator-facilitated peer supports in core academic classes and specials (e.g., art, music, physical education). Overall, paraeducator-delivered interventions resulted in improved student outcomes. Likewise, paraeducator training, which typically included an oral description, modeling, and/or performance feedback, was effective in improving paraeducator implementation of the target interventions. We present implications for practice specific to paraeducators who support students with ESN in inclusive settings and future research directions.

In this investigation, we surveyed 51 faculty members who were involved in teacher preparation programs in the area of extensive support needs (ESN) across a range of institutions of higher education. We asked participants to respond to questions related to the quality and quantity of program content focused on communication instruction and supports for students with ESN. Overall, findings indicated variability in the quality and quantity of teacher preparation-related communication instruction. In addition, participants described barriers related to teacher preparation in this area.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of special educators' delivery of training that included an initial training session and follow-up coaching on paraprofessional implementation of an evidence-based practice for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Three special educators each trained a paraprofessional in their classroom to implement functional communication training (FCT) to address the challenging behavior of a student with ASD. The training procedures incorporated the following aspects of behavioral skills training: instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. Training from special educators resulted in high levels of paraprofessional FCT implementation that maintained over time for two paraprofessionals. Special educators and paraprofessionals found the training to be practical and effective. We present implications for practice and future research directions for paraprofessional training models focused on challenging behavior interventions.

Careful consideration is essential for developing and conducting effective paraprofessional development. This study described a process of paraprofessional development and outcomes from assessments, workshops, and social validation focus group interviews from one rural public school in the USA. Fourteen paraprofessionals and their supervisors completed multiple surveys to indicate their perceived skill level and training needs before outside experts conducted a workshop on two high priority skill areas. Results showed that paraprofessionals increased their knowledge and skill development after a full-day workshop. Although paraprofessionals found the training procedures and targeted strategies to be socially valid, they identified challenges associated with implementation of the strategies and access to follow-up coaching.

Introduction: This study evaluated the effectiveness of a workshop and follow-up coaching sessions on the implementation of the system of least prompts procedure by classroom team members and explored whether this intervention resulted in personal hygiene skill acquisition by a male high school student with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Methods: Implementation fidelity data were analyzed descriptively through visual analysis. A multiple baseline design across behaviors was utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of the system of least prompts procedure on student skill acquisition. Results: Implementation fidelity was high and increased over the course of the study: paraeducator 1: 93.9% (range, 70 to 100%); paraeducator 2: 78.2% (range, 11 to 90%); and special education teacher: 94.1% (range, 35 to 100%). In addition, the student's independent performance improved from baseline to intervention across each targeted skill, with Tau-U scores as follows: cleaning the augmentative and alternative communication device: 0.78; washing hands: 0.76; and brushing teeth: 0.92. Classroom team members found both the training procedures and the system of least promptsintervention to be of value and effective. Discussion: During intervention, classroom team members implemented the system of least prompts with fidelity and the student mastered each skill. These results are promising and add to the significantly limited literature on instructional interventions for students with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Implications for practitioners: Classroom team members can effectively be taught to use the system of least prompts with students with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Furthermore, the intervention might be used to increase independent functioning for students with these comorbid conditions

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to summarize single-case design studies in which paraprofessionals delivered interventions to students with autism spectrum disorder in school settings. We descriptively analyzed participant and intervention characteristics and study quality and estimated intervention effect using Tau-U across student participants. Overall, paraprofessional-implemented interventions resulted in large to very large changes across a range of student outcomes and intervention conditions. Interventions delivered by paraprofessionals in inclusive school settings and within the context of whole group instructional arrangements resulted in significant changes in student outcomes as compared to interventions delivered in self-contained classrooms and within one-to-one and small group instructional arrangements. We present implications for research and practice and discuss limitations.

Paraprofessionals report spending a substantial amount of time addressing challenging behavior in a range of school environments, yet identify behavioral intervention as a high-priority training area. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to systematically review and summarize single-case intervention studies involving paraprofessional-delivered behavioral interventions for students with disabilities. Descriptive findings suggest that, among the reviewed studies, paraprofessionals primarily provided behavioral support to students with autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, and multiple disabilities who engage in a wide range of challenging behaviors in both inclusive and noninclusive school environments. Overall, training largely was delivered by researchers and resulted in positive paraprofessional implementation outcomes. Likewise, paraprofessional-implemented behavioral interventions contributed to desirable changes in student challenging and appropriate behavior, with effect size estimates significantly higher for interventions delivered to early childhood-age students and within inclusive school settings. Implications for practice, limitations, and future research directions are described.

In this review, we summarized and meta-analyzed 35 single-case intervention studies that involved the use of multiple schedules of reinforcement with 78 individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Based on Tau-U calculations, multiple schedules of reinforcement produced an overall large effect for appropriate communicative behavior and an overall moderate effect for challenging behavior. To evaluate variability in study outcomes, we conducted moderator analyses across 21 variables using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA test. Our findings suggest that the use of response prompts significantly moderated the effects of multiple schedules of reinforcement for appropriate communicative behaviors. We discuss these findings and provide implications for future research and practice.

Paraeducators play an important role in assisting teachers and other professionals to support students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including delivering positive behavioral supports to those students who engage in persistent challenging behavior. The purpose of this multiple baseline design across participants study was to support paraeducators to implement functional communication training (FCT) to address challenging behavior among three students with ASD who used augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Paraeducators implemented FCT with high levels of fidelity after participating in an initial training session and follow-up coaching and generally found the initial training and coaching strategies to be effective and feasible. Reductions in challenging behavior were variable across student participants. Implications for practice and future research directions are discussed in relation to FCT for students with ASD who use AAC and paraeducator training.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the overall effectiveness of a three-tier model of positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS), which was developed and tested in Head Start (HS) programs. Ten HS classrooms from five HS programs participated in the current study. Results indicated that PBIS was effective in improving classroom quality as evidenced by a statistically significant change on the classroom organization domain on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System and the overall score on the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale-Revised. We also found that children's social skills on the Social Skills Rating System significantly increased from the pre- to post-assessment whereas problem behaviors on the Child Behavior Checklist decreased. The data described here are encouraging and add to the expanding database supporting the value of the three-tier model of PBIS.

The purpose of this systematic literature review was to summarize single-case intervention studies involving paraprofessional-implemented systematic instruction for students with disabilities. In the 19 reviewed studies, 60 paraprofessionals received training to implement systematic instruction with most learning naturalistic language strategies, least-to-most prompting, pivotal response training, or discrete trial training. Researchers delivered paraprofessional training in a majority of cases using both didactic and experiential training methods. Paraprofessionals primarily taught students with autism spectrum disorder and focused on social/communication skills in a one-to-one instructional arrangement. The majority of studies demonstrated positive effects on paraprofessional implementation of systematic instruction and student outcomes. Implications for practice, limitations, and areas for future research are addressed.

As paraprofessionals gain more instructional responsibilities for individual students, feasible training strategies must be established to promote effective delivery of instruction. This train-the-trainer study was designed to teach paraprofessionals how to implement an evidence-based instructional practice under the direction of the classroom teacher. After receiving training from a university researcher, a special education teacher trained three paraprofessionals to implement constant time delay while teaching three students with multiple disabilities. The paraprofessional training consisted of a workshop, video modeling, and coaching with performance feedback. A single-case multiple baseline across paraprofessionals design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the teacher-delivered training package. All paraprofessionals implemented the systematic instructional procedures with high levels of fidelity and accuracy after training. The special education teacher and paraprofessionals shared their perceptions on the highly effective training and value of the study through social validity surveys. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed.

Functional communication training (FCT) is an evidence-based practice used to mitigate challenging behavior by increasing functional communication skills. To increase the practicality and feasibility of FCT in natural settings, thinning schedules of reinforcement are typically programmed following FCT. In this review, we meta-analyzed 28 studies that incorporated a thinning schedule procedure following FCT for 51 children with intellectual and developmental disabilities ages 8 and younger. Using Tau-U, the results demonstrated overall moderate effect sizes for both challenging behavior and functional communication responses. Additionally, moderator analyses pertaining to participant characteristics, interventions, and study quality were conducted. Thinning procedures were most effective for children who had stronger communication repertoire. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

The number of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in PreK–12 schools has increased over time. However, paraeducators supporting students with ASD typically receive limited training and are unprepared for their roles. As part of a larger survey study, we conducted a content analysis of responses by paraeducators in one U.S. state across three open-ended survey items focused on their skills, training, and challenges specific to supporting students with ASD. Despite reporting limited preparation and training, paraeducators described a variety of knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to supporting students with ASD, many of which resulted from their practical experiences as opposed to school-based training and supervision. Our findings also confirm that paraeducators face a number of challenges in collaborating with other educational professionals and families and supporting students with ASD across settings due to limited training and preparation. We present implications for developing paraeducator training programs in the area of ASD and future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Support Needs Assessment and Problem-Solving (SNAP) process is intended to assist educational teams in identifying and implementing supports for children with intellectual disability and related developmental disabilities (ID/DD) in K-12 schools. Each phase of the SNAP process is described, including identification of high priority support needs based on information derived from the Supports Intensity Scale-Children's Version (SIS-C). Two case studies of school teams using the SNAP process to identify and implement supports that enhanced opportunities for learning and participation of children in inclusive settings are presented. The importance of understanding children with ID/DD by their support needs and implications for team planning in K-12 schools are discussed.

As inclusive opportunities increase for students with disabilities, additional research is needed to examine high school students' classroom interactions. This descriptive study explores the nature of the social interactions of 10 high school students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) in the general education classroom. Findings from our observations indicated that students with IDD interacted with peers during approximately one out of every four minutes and interacted with the general educator during one out of every 10 minutes, less than their peer comparisons' interactions with peers and teachers. Students with IDD were present (M = 89.9%) and in proximity to peers (M = 71.7%) during the majority of the class period. We discuss additional results along with practical implications, limitations, and future research directions.

Schools can use School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) videos as a tool for teaching school-wide expectations and other targeted skills. Although some schools integrate SWPBIS videos into their universal framework, little is known about the creation and implementation of these videos. Through an online survey, information was gathered from schools implementing SWPBIS to describe the development and use of videos to support SWPBIS initiatives. Results from personnel representing 180 schools indicated that schools are using videos for a variety of purposes including supporting SWPBIS initiatives and student behavior. In general, schools reported positive views of videos, although some reported challenges concerning the time and resources required to produce videos. Practical implications and recommendations regarding future use of SWPBIS videos and research are discussed.

The purposes of the study were to assess the effects of an online learning module on the implementation of mand training by a classroom team and determine whether training improved manding for a student with multiple disabilities. The classroom team utilized the Support Needs Assessment and Planning (SNAP) process to identify supports and guide implementation of the mand training procedures. The results indicate that both the special education teacher and paraprofessional were able to implement the mand training strategy with fidelity after completing the online module and student manding increased. The classroom team reported that both the online learning module and SNAP process were valuable for planning and implementing research-based supports. Limitations, implications for practice, and future research considerations are addressed.

To explore the accessibility of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) for students with severe disabilities, we conducted a survey of 179 schools implementing SWPBIS during the 2015-2016 school year. Personnel from each school reported the frequency and level of importance of SWPBIS implementation across Likert-type scale items related to the domains of systems procedures, practices, and data collection procedures applicable to students with severe disabilities. Personnel from each school also responded to open-ended items to report barriers to and strategies for including students with severe disabilities in SWPBIS. Overall, school personnel reported high levels of implementation and importance across these SWPBIS domains and a range of barriers and strategies related to SWPBIS accessibility. School characteristics related to grade level, tiers of SWPBIS implementation, and the percentage of students included in general education settings for a majority of the school day contributed to statistically significant differences in ratings of frequency and importance for some aspects of the SWPBIS domains.

Progress in including students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in general education environments has been unquestionably slow during the past quarter century. Systematic approaches to identifying and arranging supports are needed to accelerate this outcome. In this article, we propose an approach to understanding students by their support needs in relation to curricular demands, instructional strategies, and participation requirements as a means to enhance the capacities of schools and general education classrooms to educate all students.

At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, schools across the United States transitioned to some form of emergency remote instruction. Preliminary research suggests that special education services may have been disjointed and many caregivers assumed a primary role in service provision during emergency remote instruction. To extend this work with a particular focus on behavior intervention plans (BIPs), we conducted interviews with 25 caregivers to examine how BIPs were implemented during emergency remote instruction. Our findings suggest that BIP implementation did not occur or was limited, most BIPs did not reflect the new learning context, and caregivers experienced a myriad of challenges providing behavioral supports due to competing responsibilities and limited guidance from school personnel. We present important implications and future research directions for BIP implementation in response to emergency situations that require remote instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This survey study examined 164 in-service special education teachers' perceptions of training strategies in their cross categorical teacher preparation program in the United Sates for developing knowledge and skills in systematic instruction, an evidence-based practice for students with extensive support needs. Both classroom-based and field-based training strategies were evaluated along with teachers' perceptions of the contribution and importance of the various training strategies. Results from Chi-square tests, Pearson correlations, multivariate analysis of covariance, and repeated measures of analysis of covariance indicated that teachers felt prepared to implement systematic instruction after exiting their program and after teaching students with disabilities, and the perceived effectiveness of training strategies was related to teacher experience. Teachers perceived modeling and receiving performance feedback in both university classrooms and field-based settings to contribute to their knowledge and skill development in systematic instruction. We present the results in terms of implications for practice and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to summarize single-case intervention research studies in which students with disabilities received function-based intervention (FBI) within inclusive school settings to address challenging behavior. A total of 27 studies were identified and systematically reviewed to determine the overall effect of FBI on challenging and appropriate behavior and whether study characteristics moderated intervention outcomes. In addition, we summarized the following: (a) characteristics of study participants and settings, (b) characteristics of FBI applied within the studies, and (c) quality of the studies. Overall, FBI led to improved behavior in a variety of inclusive school settings. Interventions delivered after a teacher-administered functional behavior assessment and within the context of a whole group instructional arrangement resulted in significant reductions in challenging behavior and improvements in appropriate behavior, respectively. Implications for practice, future directions for research, and limitations are described.

Increasing efforts have been made in the field of special education to identify positive, evidence-based practices (EBPs) to meet the needs of students who engage in problem behavior, with a major goal being to eliminate or limit the use of reactive measures such as restraint and seclusion (Snell & Walker, 2014). Various stakeholders, including families and self-advocates, have voiced concerns about the dangers of restraint and seclusion and the lack of protection afforded to students who engage in severe problem behavior. In the previous article in this issue of "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities," Beaudoin and Moore (2018) echo these concerns in their account of a family's experience with restraint as told from the perspective of a father whose son was subjected to restraint, resulting in a number of adverse short- and long-term consequences that affected the entire family. In response to Beaudoin and Moore, we provide readers with a brief review of the current status of restraint and seclusion in school settings and evidence-based strategies that can be used to address severe problem behavior and reduce the need for restraint and seclusion. For readers interested in exploring restraint and seclusion in greater depth, we suggest recent work by Trader and colleagues (2017). We also have outlined guidelines for behavior support planning that should be considered by various stakeholders as educators work toward establishing safe and supportive school environments that address a wide range of student behavioral needs. [For Beaudoin and Moore's paper, "Living without Restraint: One Parent's Reflections and Recommendations for Supporting At-Risk Individuals with Developmental Disabilities," see EJ1179974.]

This study heeds a decade-long call to action to examine the accessibility of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) for students with severe disabilities. To improve the accessibility of SWPBIS, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and evidence-based practices were used to teach three students with severe disabilities schoolwide behavior expectations in inclusive schoolwide settings. Special education teachers from three different elementary schools adapted their campus SWPBIS Tier 1 lesson plans with additional visual supports, social narratives, and systematic instructional procedures. All participants showed improvement as evidenced by a reduction in the duration of their problem behavior in schoolwide settings. Implementing teachers found the intervention and corresponding materials to be socially valid.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of workshops and coaching on paraprofessional implementation of function-based interventions. The results of indirect and direct functional behavior assessment guided the development of intervention strategies for three students with autism and intellectual disability. Following intervention, students' appropriate behavior increased and challenging behavior decreased. In general, paraprofessionals implemented strategies with high levels of fidelity and judged both the coaching and workshop training procedures and student intervention strategies as socially valid. Implications for practice, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this survey study was to assess the perceived skill level and educational needs of special education paraprofessionals in the area of function-based intervention and to identify paraprofessionals' preferred training delivery method(s) and any variables that affect paraprofessionals' preference for these methods. Special education paraprofessionals working during the 2012-2013 school year in the state of Virginia were asked to complete an anonymous online survey. A total of 487 special education paraprofessionals responded to some or all survey items. Findings suggest that a large number of paraprofessionals reported low skill level and high educational needs across 10 domains of function-based intervention. Overall, paraprofessionals preferred training that is delivered within school settings, involves experiential learning, and requires minimal time. Implications for practice, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

In this study, we examined the extent to which educators believe students with complex support needs (CSN) participate in and benefit from practices associated with school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS). We conducted a survey of 622 teachers in the United States and analyzed responses according to the implementation or absence of SWPBIS at the respondent's school. Our findings show (a) teachers working in SWPBIS schools have more knowledge of how to handle challenging behavior among students with CSN, (b) students with CSN who are taught in SWPBIS schools are more involved in SWPBIS-associated practices and the general education classroom, and (c) teachers believe students with CSN should be involved in SWPBIS-associated practices. Implications for practice and research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]