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La educacion y su desarrollo en los distintos niveles de aprendizaje han sido y seran siempre topicos de discusion dentro de la rama de la docencia. La evaluacion ha sido una actividad comun y caracteristica del ser humano desde que este existe. Evidentemente hay diferencias en las evaluaciones que se llevan a cabo en la cotidianidad y las que se realizan en las que se realizan con caracter cientifico y de manera sistematica en los centros educativos. La evaluacion, como otros aspectos relacionados con el mundo educativo ha pasado por diferentes concepciones, siendo, en los anos mas recientes, uno de los elementos didacticos que mas ha evolucionado en el contexto educativo y social a la vez que las cuestiones que mas ha preocupado a los docentes y a la administracion educativa. Para esta investigacion nos proponemos resaltar no solo las aclaratorias pertinentes para concebir una definicion de la evaluacion formativa sino resaltar porque es importante comprenderla, desarrollarla, adaptarla en, con, por y para la Educacion superior a traves de las discusiones publicadas a nivel cientifico sobre el tema. El analisis de documentos ha sido una de los elementos mas necesarios para la investigacion cientifica actual, utilizando el motor de busqueda Google Academico hemos utilizado palabras como Evaluacion Formativa para seleccion por orden de relevancia los trabajos que aporten a las discusiones mas significativas. Se concluye que La evaluacion formativa no solo es incluyente a niveles fisicos, sociales, politicos y economicos sino tambien humanos, su ausencia pondria en jaque el crecimiento vertiginosos de medios electronicos que soportan el sistema educativo actual, sobre todo a nivel de Educacion Superior considerando los programas educativos a distancia los que hoy de alguna manera permite una continuidad a nivel educativo a pesar de una necesidad vital de distanciamiento social y confinamiento humano.

MCom (Taxation), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus In the present economic climate in South Africa, sustained growth in terms of job creation and company expansion is essential. Small businesses in South Africa have the ability to play a big part in the nation’s economic destiny, owing to the fact that they are the engines of growth, job creation, and technological innovation in the country. Financing is a significant barrier for these businesses, which is hampered by a limited supply of capital. Access to finance and investors is critical for the success of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Giving tax breaks and other government incentives to SMEs account for a significant share of a government’s contribution to the expansion of the sector. Many countries in the G20 provide a variety of tax advantages to stimulate investment in small and medium-sized enterprises as a general rule. This includes South Africa. Small and medium-sized enterprises in South Africa are eligible for tax incentives under section 12E of the Income Tax Act and paragraph 57 of the Eighth Schedule to the Income Tax Act, respectively. In addition, SMEs were eligible for tax benefits under section 12J of the Income Tax Act, which was set to expire on 30 June 2021. This study was prompted by the issue posed by the National Treasury’s decision, since SMEs now receive little assistance in the form of tax breaks. The goal of this research was, therefore, to first conduct an in-depth review of the tax advantages available to investors in SMEs in South Africa and a number of other countries of the G20. A second step was to conduct a critical analysis in order to determine the design features of these incentives and how they relate to one another in terms of scope, eligibility requirements, and administration procedures. According to the findings of this study, there are several shortcomings in the tax relief measures available to SMEs in South Africa, particularly when considering the history of these incentives, which eventually led to the demise of section 12J and severe criticism of the effectiveness of section 12E, among other things. Furthermore, it was stated that the administrative burden placed on the Government and SMEs had been significantly raised as a result of the many adjustments and anti-avoidance efforts adopted by the South African Government. As a result, the value provided by this research was to aid in the knowledge of alternative relief measures for investors in SMEs that are already in use by other G20 nations, as well as how they are designed. In this research, recommendations were given on how to perhaps improve or enhance the design of South African tax relief for investors in small and medium-sized enterprises. Therefore, a thorough evaluation of prior research on the various small company tax discounts offered by South Africa and the G20 countries was conducted in order to inform this study. It was decided to use a post-structural or doctrinal study design for this research approach. Masters

El presente trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de evaluar la eficiencia, operación y mantenimiento del Sistema de Tratamiento de Aguas Residuales de la ciudad de Estelí, a través de la determinación de los parámetros fisicoquímicos y bacteriológicos establecidos en los Artos. 22 y 23 del Decreto 33-95 y la norma NTON 05 027 05. El Sistema de tratamiento evaluado está compuesto por 3 módulos independientes, cada módulo constituido por tres unidades de tratamiento (UASB + laguna facultativa + maduración). Para la determinación de las variaciones de caudal en la entrada y salida del STAR se realizaron aforos por tres días consecutivos con frecuencia de 8h, utilizando canales rectangulares y canaletas parshall para conocer el caudal de afluente y efluente. El muestreo se llevó a cabo; durante 3 días consecutivos, se analizaron los siguientes parámetros: temperatura del agua, sólidos suspendidos totales, sólidos sedimentables, DBO5, DQO, grasas y aceites, sustancias activas al azul de metileno y coliformes fecales, los cuales a través de análisis de laboratorio brindaron la información necesaria sobre el funcionamiento del sistema. Las muestras compuestas se efectuaron en la entrada y salida general del STAR donde se realizaron seis muestreos por tres días consecutivos, con frecuencia de 10h. Las muestras simples se realizaron durante un día con frecuencia de 1h, en la entrada y salida de los reactores UASB y lagunas de estabilización que comprende cada módulo. La eficiencia total del sistema según la remoción de DBO5, DQO y coliformes fecales fue de 92.48%, 86.95% y 81.16% respectivamente, sin embargo el porcentaje de remoción de coliformes no es lo suficiente para cumplir con los Art 22 y 23 del Decreto 33-95.

This article is a brief introduction to the writings of Nigerian scholar and writer Remy Ilona. In his work, Ilona argues that an undeniable induction can be made that the Igbo of Nigeria are relig...

This investigation assessed the hypothesis that conduct disordered juveniles may suffer from a maturational lag in the development of behaviors believed associated with the frontal cortex. Twenty conduct disorder (CD) juveniles and 20 normal comparison subjects were compared on nine Lurian tasks that measure behavior attributed to frontal lobe functioning. A three-way ANOVA, with gender, race, and group as factors of interest, revealed significant differences on the verbal conflict task, verbal retroactive inhibition task, and on a measure of receptive vocabulary. Using receptive vocabulary as a covariate, an ANCOVA showed no significant differences between the groups on any of the tasks. These findings appear to support the potential impact that language dysfunction can have in the development of disinhibitory behavior. Other interpretations of the findings are presented.

Three male squirrel monkeys were tested for their ability to make detections on a visual vigilance task, using a within-subjects repeated measures design. Each animal was tested with four doses of D-amphetamine; 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg/kg, under both noise and quiet conditions, damphetamine decreased the frequency of detections as dose was increased. This effect occurred in the quiet but not the noise condition. Detection rate was lower and less consistent in the noise condition than in the quiet condition. The results are considered in terms of (1) a depressing effect of amphetamine on central nervous system arousal, and (2) the disrupting effect of white noise on a visual vigilance task.

Previous data indicate that learning of a conditioned visual avoidance task following simultaneous complete bilateral occipital ablations is affected by the age of the organism as well as the postoperative recovery period. The present study investigated the performance of the avoidance task, following complete occipital ablations, in young and older rats given two different recovery intervals. Young rats given 10 days to recover performed more poorly than the young control animals; given 20 days to recover, young rats performed comparable to controls. Older rats given 10 days to recover performed significantly better than the controls; given 20 days to recover, older rats did not show a decrease in performance. The present finding is consistent with previous data which show that the occipital cortex exerted an inhibitory effect on the learning ability of the avoidance task in older rats, which, upon removal, enhanced the performance of these rats on the task.

Controversy exists as to when those functions associated with the left tertiary cortex become fully developed in children. To address this issue, neuropsychological development of tactile-visual (cross-modal) discrimination was assessed in 200 normal children aged 5 through 9 years. The factors of gender and race (black, white) were evaluated across this age span. A three-factor ANOVA revealed no gender differences, but significant main effects for age and race existed. There were no significant interactions. White children outperformed black children across all ages, and Sheffe's post-hoc comparisons revealed that, by age 7, children have mastered those basic cross-modal functions necessary for complex higher cognitive processes. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Four young (2 1/2 years) and four older (over 10 years) squirrel monkeys were used to study age differences in the effects of d-amphetamine, methylphenidate and illumination on response speed. Although young monkeys were faster than the old monkeys, only the older monkeys showed an illumination effect. Both d-amphetamine and methylphenidate slowed response speed but only in the older monkeys showed an illumination illumination was present. These results suggest that older, mature squirrel monkeys are more sensitive to the effects of d-amphetamine, methylphenidate and illumination than young squirrel monkeys.

A small, low-cost, integrated circuit device is described. This circuit reduces electrical noise, such as that produced from a poor electrode-skin interface and power-line interference (60 Hz). Advantages of this device, with regard to use in electrically noisy environments and with long cables, are discussed.

Ninety children aged 26 to 69 months were tested individually on two tasks. The first required the identification of tachistoscopically presented visual stimuli. Presentation times were shortened after every fourth stimulus until a child no longer made three correct identifications out of a series of four. The second task required that similar identifications be delayed by intervals of 10, 20, and 40 seconds following presentation. The presentation time required for correct identification of the stimuli declined significantly across the age range examined while the maximum delay interval after which a correct response could be obtained increased. In addition, the two measures were statistically independent of each other although both were related to the age of the child. The results indicate that some of the perceptual processes which have been shown to be instrumental in the acquisition of reading skills exhibit a marked developmental change during the preschool years.

The effect of occipital ablation on the visual sensitivity to low levels of illumination in young and old rats was studied using a signal detection task. A significant decrease in sensitivity following ablation was found for both age groups, which could be eliminated by increasing the apparent brightness of the visual stimuli. Results are discussed in terms of the role of the occipital cortex in detecting low levels of illumination.

There has long been speculation as to the development of behaviors attributed to frontal lobe functioning in children. Controversy exists as to when behaviors attributed to frontal lobe functioning become fully developed. This study examined the performance of normal male and female children at four age levels between 6 and 12 years of age. Performance on verbal and nonverbal proactive and retroactive inhibition, verbal and nonverbal conflict, and two perseve‐ration tasks was assessed. The results suggested that in children, the development of behaviors associated with frontal lobe functioning is a multistage process. The greatest period of development appeared to occur at the 6‐ and 8‐year‐old levels. By the age of 10, the ability to inhibit attention to irrelevant stimuli and perseveratory responses was fairly complete, with mastery evident by age 12.

The design of a versatile and programmable transducer amplifier device with analogue display for self-monitoring of autonomic responses is described. The design features low cost, portability, and flexibility across direct-current transducer options (e.g., photoplethysmograph or thermistor). The device can be used for the visual or auditory display of continuous blood volume pulse or temperature measures where the relative amplitude or pulse rate is of concern. Auditory or visual biofeedback may be provided via the choice of a stacked bar-graph display or piezoelectric buzzer. A common circuit design to allow programming options for the estimation of heart rate, inter-beat interval, or pulse duration is provided.

The dose-response relationships for three stimulants have been explored. These drugs have been shown to differ in potency and, with successive doubling of doses, have been found to have dose-response curves of differing slopes. In addition, the relationship between dose and activity level was not the same for younger and older rats. The relationship between dosage of both d-amphetamine and methylphenidate and locomotor activity was not the same in the light and the dark. The latter finding suggests a difference between these two stimulants and the third stimulant studied, caffeine, whose effects where unaltered by ambient illumination level.

The effects of illumination, d-amphetamine, and methylphenidate on vigilance behavior were studied with four squirrel monkeys. Detection rates of an auditory signal were higher in the light than in the dark. Although methylphenidate did not alter performance, d-amphetamine lowered detection rates more in the light than in the dark, particularly in male squirrel monkeys. Results were interpreted in terms of altered arousal levels.

Controversy exists as to when behaviors associated with frontal lobe functioning become fully developed in normal children. This investigation examined the normal development in children of the nonverbal ability to regulate and inhibit motor action and perform on tasks involving temporal ordering. Normal Black and White boys and girls ranging in age from 5 to 12 years were examined on tasks involving go‐no go decisions, auditory‐sequential and visual‐simultaneous conflict tasks, and on a task of temporal ordering. Significant age effects were found on all tasks. Six‐year‐olds clearly performed less well than 8‐, 10‐, or 12‐year‐olds, suggesting that significant development takes place between 6 to 8 years of age on these tasks. However, some behaviors attributed to frontal lobe functioning are still not mastered by age 12.

This study examines the differential effects of simultaneous vs sequential stimulus presentation on performance of a visuo-spatial memory task in patients following unilateral temporal lobectomy for relief of complex-partial seizures. Eleven subjects with surgical resection of the left temporal lobe, 13 subjects with surgical resection of the right temporal lobe, and 12 normal controls were examined. Results indicate that both the Right and the Left surgical groups were impaired on the visuo-spatial memory task employed. Further, the Right resection group was significantly more impaired for the recall of stimuli presented in the sequential condition as compared to the simultaneous condition.

Cortical arousal has been assumed to be a continuous rather than “all or none” phenomenon. Few studies using quantitative techniques for the examination of cortical activity have been sensitive enough to detect such an arousal continuum, if one does exist. Typically, these studies have quantified cortical activity by using period analysis or amplitude analysis. A technique is presented which incorporates both of these types of analysis and yields a derived measure sensitive to alterations in cortical arousal. This derived measure was found to be significantly correlated with locomotor activity.

The effects of d-amphetamine sulfate and methylphenidate hydrochloride on auditory thresholds in ten squirrel monkeys were examined using a 4.2 kHz stimulus in a free field. The results indicated that d-amphetamine raised auditory thresholds but methylphenidate did not alter the thresholds. The elevation of sensory thresholds by d-amphetamine was in agreement with previous studies suggesting that the drug acts as a behavioral depressant in diurnal animals.

The effects of oral doses of d-amphetamine and methylphenidate on a fixed-interval operant response were studied in four young male squirrel monkeys. A fixed-interval of 80 sec with limited hold of 20 sec was used. Methylphenidate produced no observable changes in behavior, while d-amphetamine produced dose related changes in both the rate of responding and the temporal patterning of responses. Since dose levels used included, and exceeded, human clinical dosages, the present findings may have implications for future research involving the clinical use of these drugs.

Retention of an avoidance response made to the onset of a change in illumination was measured following temporally spaced bilateral ablation of the occipital cortex of the rat. Twelve days were allowed to pass between the ablation of cortex of the two hemispheres. Post-operative retention was superior when the inter-operative interval was spent in the light and noise, except when paired with chronic administration of phenobarbital (30 mg/kg/day). Post-operative retention was minimized when the interoperative interval was spent in dark and quiet, except when paired with chronic administration of d-amphetamine (2 mg/kg/ day).

A consistency in the effects of food deprivation and amphetamine administration on both gross locomotor activity and electrical self-stimulation of the brain (ESSB) is noted. The effects of sensory conditions on ESSB were investigated. Rats were trained to press a bar for rewarding brain stimulation. When Ss had stabilized, they were tested in a complete factorial design composed of four levels of illumination and two levels of noise. It was found that Ss pressed more under the medium illumination condition than under any other level of illumination, while white noise had no significant effects. Since rats are more active in the dark than in the light, it is concluded that illumination has unlike effects on activity and rate of ESSB.

42 albino rats were trained preoperatively to make an avoidance response to a change in illumination. The occipital lobes were serially ablated. The interval between ablations and the sensory stimulation conditions during the interoperative interval were varied. Following the second operation retention of the original response was measured. Performance was found to be related to both the length of the interoperative interval and the existing stimulus conditions during the interval.

The influence of illumination level on locomotor activity and reaction times of three age groups (25, 90, and 180 days old) of rats was studied. Age-related differences were obtained, and consistent effects on the two behavioral measures were obtained for the individual animals.

SYNOPSIS Bilateral blood volume pulse (BVP) recordings from the frontotemporal artery were obtained from a migraineur and eight non-migraineurs prior to and following the presentation of a novel laboratory stressor - the consumption of ice water. The results revealed a markedly different pattern of BVP activity in the migraineur compared to the non-migraineurs. The implications of these findings for assessing the disregulation of the vasomotor response system are noted. In addition, the novel stressor used in this study may be used for inducing migraine attacks in controlled laboratory environment.

The effects of methylphenidate hydrochloride and d-amphetamine sulfate were compared when given orally and by intraperitoneal injection to rats. Both drugs increased the level of locomotor activity when given by injection. Oral administration of d-amphetamine produced a lesser effect, but methylphenidate was ineffective when given by this route.

The ability to detect low levels of light was studied in two age groups. It was found that the sensitivity of the younger rats (157 days old) was greater than the sensitivity of the older rats (420 days old). However, altering the olfactory environment produced an increase in sensitivity to light in both groups.

The design of a versatile, low-cost, hermetically sealed, infrared photoplethysmograph is described. The device can be used for optical readings of changes in blood volume which occur with cardiovascular events. Advantages of the device are discussed.

The effects of d-amphetamine and methylphenidate upon the locomotor activity of six young squirrel monkeys were studied. While d-amphetamine produced a dose-related decrease in activity, methylphenidate produced no significant changes. Combined doses of the drugs, as well as a large dose of methylphenidate, produced no changes in locomotor activity that were related to methylphenidate.

The effects of lesions confined to the anterior tip of the olfactory bulbs on locomotor activity are dependent upon the extent of the animals' exposure to the testing environment. Rats habituated to the test situation are hypoactive, while those not habituated to the test situation are hyperactive. The apparent effects of olfactory deaffentation are to lower arousal level and to interfere with habituation to the testing environment.

In two age groups of squirrel monkeys, subjects performed an operant response for light onset in the presence or absence of white noise. Results of the study indicate that light is an effective reinforcer for both younger and older monkeys, but differentially. The study also indicates that the presence of white noise affects responding in both age groups dissimilarly.

SYNOPSIS Bilateral blood volume pulse response recordings from the fronto-temporal artery were obtained from a migraineur during a headache state, in a headache free state, and for several days following one headache in order to assess for general vasomotor disregulation. Recordings were also obtained at various times prior to the onset of several independent headaches. The results indicated marked variability for both within session recordings and between session recordings for the migraineur. The recordings from the non-migraineur, who was matched to the migraineur on several relevant factors, indicated greater consistency of the blood volume pulse both within and between sessions than was observed with the migraineur. The findings lend support to previous research which indicates that the vasomotor response system of migraineurs may be in a chronic state of disregulation relative to the vasomotor response system of non-migraineurs.

The interaction of altered activity levels by stimulants and brainstem lesions was examined. Lesions of the substantia nigra and red nucleus significantly increased activity over control levels in albino rats. The stimulant action of d-amphetamine and methylphenidate was additive with lesion effects. In addition, stimulants disrupted the normal light-dark relationship with activity while the lesions did not. It is suggested that there are two functionally separate systems regulating locomotor activity.

The visual sensitivity of rats was studied under four dose levels of dextroamphetamine sulfate. It was found that drug administration produced a significant dose-related decrease in visual sensitivity. The results are discussed in terms of the possible sites of action of the drug that might produce such results.

Locomotor activity and electrophysiological recordings of the superior colliculus and the occipital cortex were measured for two age groups of rats (100-105 and 230-235 days old) tested in ambient light and dark sensory conditions. Age differences in response to ambient illumination were observed in both behavioral and electrophysiological data. While no age differences were found for the superior colliculus data, cortical activity of the older rats differed from that found in the younger rats. These results are interpreted in terms of potential cortical development and arousal functions.

Auditory thresholds of four squirrel monkeys were examined with a 4 kHz tone in light and dark ambient sensory conditions. The results revealed that auditory sensitivity is higher in the light than in the dark.

Hyperactivity in the rat resulting from the removal of the frontal lobe, including the head of the caudate-putamen nucleus, in combination with d-amphetamine administration was studied in the light and dark over a 30 day postsurgical recovery period. Both d-amphetamine administration and frontal ablation increased activity level. In addition, d-amphetamine administration reversed the normal relationship of illumination with activity level. The postoperative hyperactivity following frontal ablation was dependent on the illumination level during testing. Potentiation of frontal induced hyperactivity by d-amphetamine was observed but the potentiation was not independent of the ambient illumination.

Reactivity to novel and irrelevant stimuli has been shown to vary as a function of age. Since differential responsivity to irrelevant events may account for purported age differences on other tasks, the present experiment studied the extent to which these age differences may be reduced with repeated exposure, i.e., habituation. Young (2 to 3 years) and old (15+ years) squirrel monkeys were trained and their performance stabilized over months on a fixed-interval operant task. This behavior was then disrupted by periodic presentations of an auditory stimulus of moderate intensity. Disruption of stable behavior and habituation to the tone stimulus were evaluated across several measures including overall response rates between and within the daily sessions; recovery of baseline response rates during the tone stimulus; and the curvature of the fixed interval “scallop.” Old monkeys responded for sweet fruit juice more frequently, but less efficiently, than young monkeys. Their responding was more severely disrupted by intermittent novel auditory stimuli, to which they were slower to habituate.