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This study examined the antecedents of teachers' use of motivational strategies in the classroom using self-determination theory. It was found that teachers' autonomous causality orientation, perceived job pressure, and perception of student self-determined motivation influenced their need satisfaction. In turn, their need satisfaction had a positive direct impact on autonomous motivation. In addition, teachers' perception of their students' self-determined motivation directly predicted teachers' use of three motivational strategies in the classroom. Finally, their autonomous motivation positively predicted providing instrumental help and support and meaningful rationale, whereas controlled motivation negatively predicted providing instrumental help and support.

The present study focuses on the perspectives of teachers and students in Singapore schools after an autonomy-supportive classroom intervention. Nurturing of students to become motivated and self-regulated learners can be achieved by promoting an autonomy-supportive learning climate. This study examines the perspectives of teachers and students in an in-depth and meaningful manner after the classroom intervention. Through students' viewpoints, teachers can understand their structure of teaching style and students' expectations. Findings of semi-structured interviews with students and teachers were analyzed, with emerging themes discussed in the context of literature. Based on qualitative data, this preliminary study explores a rich and meaningful insight to students' expectations of their teachers and teachers' expectations towards their students. The qualitative data provided relevant and practical insights into the classroom intervention, suggesting that teachers should be aware of their instructional behaviors in class as such acts might have ramification on students' perception, motivation and learning. Limitations and implications are also discussed.

The purpose of this research was to examine physical activity patterns and psychological correlates of physical activity among primary, secondary, and junior college students in Singapore. A sample of 3,333 school students aged 10 to 18 years took part in the study. Results showed that the younger students had significantly higher physical activity levels compared to the older students. In contrast, the older students had significantly higher prevalence of sedentary activity compared to their younger counterparts. Multiple regression analyses showed that the predictors of physical activity intention were different for the three age groups but similar between the two genders. Overall, these findings confirmed the characteristics of physical activity participation in school students and showed that physical activity and sedentary behaviors among students in Singapore were not inversely related to each other. In addition, results also showed that the psychological correlates were different for different age groups. (Contains 5 tables.)

The benefits of cooperative learning strategies, such as group project work, have been advocated in a wide range of educational contexts. There is however, scant information on the outcome of such programs on students of low academic ability. In this study, interviews were conducted with four groups of low-ability students, with the aim of investigating their perceptions on the effectiveness of group project work in promoting their social and cognitive skills. Our findings show that although the students recognized that the program improved their competence in interacting with others, there are problematic organizational and instructional issues that have to be ironed out before students can profit fully from cooperative learning programs.

The motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ) is widely used as a self-report instrument to assess students' motivation and self-regulation. This study utilized the MSLQ Junior High to examine the motivational beliefs and self-regulation of secondary school students (Grades 8 and 9) from Singapore. The instrument was slightly modified and administered to students (N = 610) in mathematics and science classes. In the first sample, 314 students completed the MSLQ Junior High while a second sample of 296 students completed the revised MSLQ Junior High. Using a congeneric approach of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the five-factor measurement model was determined with the first sample. This measurement model was further supported using a second sample and its goodness-of-fit indices were compared with other CFA models. Statistical findings showed that the five-factor structure of the revised MSLQ Junior High had a good model fit. The present study contributes a novel methodological approach by investigating the parsimony confirmatory factor structure of the revised MSLQ Junior High in local academic contexts.

We examined whether perceived competence moderated the relationships between implicit theories, 2 x 2 achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation for sports and physical activity. We placed 309 university students into high and moderate perceived competence groups. When perceived competence was high, entity beliefs did not predict the performance-avoidance goal; yet when perceived competence was moderately low, entity beliefs did predict this goal. The mastery-avoidance goal had no relationship with intrinsic motivation when perceived competence was high, but had a significant negative relationship when perceived competence was moderately low. Our findings highlight the importance of reexamining the role of perceived competence when studying implicit beliefs and the 2 x 2 achievement goals. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

We examined the validity of the factor structure and invariance of the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale instrument scores across two nations endorsing collectivist (Singapore) and individualist (Great Britain) cultural values. Results indicated that confirmatory factor analytic models of the PLOC exhibited adequate ft according to multiple criteria within each sample and across samples. There was invariance in the item-intercepts across the two cultures. In addition, the simplex-like pattern of relations among the PLOC constructs was confirmed within cultures and in invariance analyses. Finally, latent factor means analysis revealed that the British participants tended to rate less self-determined forms of motivation lower than and more self-determined forms of motivation higher than the Singaporean participants. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Background: The project work (PW) initiative was launched in 2000 by the Ministry of Education, Singapore, to encourage application of knowledge across disciplines, and to develop thinking, communication, collaboration, and metacognitive skills. Although PW has been introduced for a few years, few studies have examined the motivation of students in PW, especially with the use of the recently proposed 2 x 2 achievement goal framework. Aim: To use a cluster analytic approach to identify students' achievement goal profiles at an intra-individual level, and to examine their links to various psychological characteristics and perceived outcomes in PW. Sample: Participants were 491 Secondary 2 students (mean age = 13.78, SD = 0.77) from two government coeducational schools. Method: Cluster analysis was performed to identify distinct subgroups of students with similar achievement goal profiles. One-way MANOVAs, followed by "post hoc" Tukey HSD tests for pairwise comparisons were used to determine whether there was any significant difference amongst clusters in terms of the psychological characteristics and perceived outcomes in PW. Results: Four distinct clusters of students were identified. The cluster with high achievement goals and the cluster with moderately high goals had the most positive psychological characteristics and perceived outcomes. In contrast, the cluster with very low scores for all four achievement goals had the most maladaptive profile. Conclusion: The study provides support for the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework, and demonstrates that multiple goals can operate simultaneously. However, it highlights the need for cross-cultural studies to look into the approach-avoidance dimension in the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework.

The use of project work (PW) or project-based learning has escalated in Singapore since its inception by the Ministry of Education in the year 2000. There is however little information on students' motivation, and their experience of PW over time. This study sought to identify homogeneous groups of students with distinct perceived locus of causality (PLOC) profiles using a cluster analytic approach, and to examine group differences in their perceived psychological needs, emotions, metacognition, and perceived skills learned in PW over time. Four distinct clusters of students were identified. The "high self-determined/low controlled" group was the most adaptive cluster, and the "low self-determined/high controlled" group was the least adaptive cluster. The study affirms that the self-determination theory (SDT) can provide important insights into the motivational processes in PW. It establishes that students' motivational regulations and their perceived needs satisfaction at the start of PW are related to their experience of and learning in PW. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

The authors report findings from a study into students' and teachers' perceptions of the effectiveness of group project work (PW) in promoting students' motivation and learning. The authors gathered students' views on whether PW satisfied their basic psychological needs, affected their motivation, and created opportunities for life skills development. In addition, the authors interviewed 13 of the teachers to assess the extent to which their perceptions matched those of their students. The findings showed that, in general, the students recognized the benefits of PW and perceived themselves as fairly motivated to do PW. However, some of the teachers felt that their students' lack of motivation and competence hindered their performance in PW. Nevertheless, when teachers and students were able to reconcile their differences and reciprocate each other's expectations, PW was carried out effectively, with students and teachers benefiting from the experience. (Contains 2 tables.)

It has been claimed that young children in schools in Scotland cannot relate to the activities that are taught in the more "traditional" PE curriculum, activities that predominately include team invasion games (TIG) such as basketball, soccer and hockey (Scottish Executive, 2004). However, one of the issues with this claim is that it does not appear to derive from any empirical, Scottish-based, research. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to investigate pupils' perceptions of and experiences in TIG within the PE curriculum in Scotland, specifically their perception of competence, enjoyment and the value they attach to games such as soccer and basketball. We gathered data from three year groups, primary 7 (P7) (age = 11 [plus or minus] 0.8 yrs), secondary 2 (S2) (age = 13.5 [plus or minus] 0.5 yrs) and secondary 4 (S4) (age = 15 [plus or minus] 0.4 yrs) from one urban state school in Edinburgh and its three feeder primary schools (n = 285). All of the pupils in this study completed a questionnaire and a sample from each year group took part in a focus group interview. We found that P7 pupils valued the role of TIG within their PE curriculum more highly than the S4 pupils. For all of the year groups in this study, there was a positive relationship between their perception of competence and enjoyment of TIG and the value they attached to them. These findings warrant further research into the ways in which TIG are delivered in Scottish schools to understand more fully why pupils in Scottish schools value the role of TIG less as they move from P7 to S4. (Contains 1 figure.)

The aim of the present study was to re-examine the relationships between achievement goals and perceived purposes of PE, perceived motivational climates, attitudes towards PE teachers and affective outcomes using the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework. Questionnaires were completed by 493 secondary school students (222 males, 262 females, 9 missing) in Singapore. Cluster analysis revealed three distinct clusters that differed significantly in their achievement goals profiles. One cluster consisting of high scores on mastery approach, mastery avoidance and performance avoidance achievement goals was linked to the most positive set of characteristics and outcomes, while the cluster with low achievement goals was linked to most negative characteristics and outcomes. There was another cluster with moderate levels of mastery approach that had relatively positive perceptions and attitudes towards PE. The findings of these three goal profiles provide insight and add knowledge to the existing literature. Research that ignores the independence of the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework may risk making spurious conclusions. (Contains 5 tables.)

This study examined the network of relationships between sport ability beliefs, achievement goals, self-determination and female students' enjoyment in school physical education (PE). Female secondary students (n = 343) from a single-sex secondary school in Singapore participated in the survey. They were assessed on sport ability beliefs, goal orientations, relative autonomy, perceived competence and enjoyment in PE. The findings established that incremental belief predicted task orientation. In addition, relative autonomy, task orientation and perceived competence had strong and direct impact on enjoyment. Overall, the present study offers some insightful thoughts for promoting enjoyment for girls in PE and physical activity. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

Background: Although several studies support the existence of a negative stream effect on lower-ability stream students' academic self-concept, there is not enough longitudinal research evidence to preclude the possibility that the stream effect may only be temporary. In addition, not much is known about the effect of streaming on changes in students' academic self-concept over time. Aims: The main aims of the study were to examine the effect of streaming on (a) the students' academic self-concept immediately after the streaming process, and at yearly intervals for 3 consecutive years, and (b) the changes in students' academic self-concept over a 3 year period. Sample: The sample comprised 495 Secondary 1 students (approximate age 13) from three government coeducational schools in Singapore. Method: A longitudinal survey using a self-reported questionnaire. Results: Results showed that the lower-ability stream students had a more negative academic self-concept than the higher-ability stream students immediately after streaming, but they had a more positive academic self-concept 3 years after being streamed. In addition, it was established that the students' academic self-concept declined from Secondary 1 to Secondary 3. Nonetheless, the decline was more pronounced for the higher-ability stream students than the lower-ability stream students. Conclusions: Streaming may have a short-term negative impact on lower-ability stream students' academic self-concept. However, in the long run, being in the lower-ability stream may not be detrimental to their academic self-concept.

This study tested the replicability and cross-cultural invariance of a trans-contextual model of motivation across 4 samples from diverse cultures. The model proposes a motivational sequence in which perceived autonomy support (PAS) in physical education (PE) predicts autonomous motivation, intentions, and behavior in a leisure-time (LT) physical activity context. High-school pupils from Britain, Greece, Poland, and Singapore completed measures of PAS and autonomous motives in a PE context. Goodfitting path-analytic models supported the main hypotheses of the trans-contextual model in the British, Greek, and Singaporean samples. PAS in PE had significant total effects on autonomous motives in LT, except in the Polish sample. The effect of autonomous motives in LT on physical activity intentions and behavior was mediated by theory of planned behavior constructs in all samples. Results supported the main hypotheses of the trans-contextual model across cultures, although the effect of PAS was not pervasive in the Polish sample.

This study tests the generalizability of the factor pattern, structural parameters, and latent mean structure of a multidimensional, hierarchical model of physical self-concept in adolescents across gender and grade. A children's version of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (C-PSPP) was administered to seventh-, eighth- and ninth-grade high school students (N= 2,969). Two a priori models were proposed: a confirmatory factor-analytic model that hypothesized a multidimensional model of physical self-concept; and a structural equation model that proposed a multidimensional, hierarchical structure with global self-concept as a superordinate construct and physical self-concept as a domain level construct that explained the covariances among the subdomains of the C-PSPP. Both models satisfied multiple criteria for goodness-of-fit with the data in each individual gender and grade sample. Tests of the invariance of the factor pattern and structural parameters for both models across gender and grade were supported. Consistent with findings from other contexts, latent means analysis suggests that physical self-concept scores was higher in boys.

Research shows a decline in participation in physical activity across the teenage years. It is important, therefore, to examine factors that might influence adolescent girl's likelihood of being physically active. This study used contemporary theoretical perspectives from psychology to assess a comprehensive profile of motivational and self-perception variables in 11-16 year old English girls (n=516). A cross-sectional design was employed. Cluster analysis was conducted to (a) map cluster profiles and (b) test whether clusters differed in physical self-worth, global self-esteem, and physical activity. Results revealed a five-cluster solution depicting 40% of the sample as moderately motivated, 30% lowly motivated in two clusters, and 30% highly motivated, also in two clusters. However, differences between clusters on physical activity were quite small. Results show potential areas for intervention to enhance the motivation of adolescent girls for physical activity.