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Single-dish far-infrared (far-IR) and sub-millimetre (sub-mm) point source catalogues and their connections with catalogues at other wavelengths are of paramount importance. However, due to the large mismatch in spatial resolution, cross-matching galaxies at different wavelengths is challenging. This work aims to develop the next-generation deblended far-IR and sub-mm catalogues and present the first application in the COSMOS field. Our progressive deblending used the Bayesian probabilistic framework known as XID+. The deblending started from the Spitzer/MIPS 24 micron data, using an initial prior list composed of sources selected from the COSMOS2020 catalogue and radio catalogues from the VLA and the MeerKAT surveys, based on spectral energy distribution modelling which predicts fluxes of the known sources at the deblending wavelength. To speed up flux prediction, we made use of a neural network-based emulator. After deblending the 24 micron data, we proceeded to the Herschel PACS (100 & 160 micron) and SPIRE wavebands (250, 350 & 500 micron). Each time we constructed a tailor-made prior list based on the predicted fluxes of the known sources. Using simulated far-IR and sub-mm sky, we detailed the performance of our deblending pipeline. After validation with simulations, we then deblended the real observations from 24 to 500 micron and compared with blindly extracted catalogues and previous versions of deblended catalogues. As an additional test, we deblended the SCUBA-2 850 micron map and compared our deblended fluxes with ALMA measurements, which demonstrates a higher level of flux accuracy compared to previous results.We publicly release our XID+ deblended point source catalogues. These deblended long-wavelength data are crucial for studies such as deriving the fraction of dust-obscured star formation and better separation of quiescent galaxies from dusty star-forming galaxies., Comment: 23 pages, 30 figures, accepted for publication in A&A. Catalogues can be downloaded from https://hedam.lam.fr/HELP/dataproducts/dmu26/dmu26_XID+COSMOS2024/

Galaxy sizes correlate with many other important properties of galaxies, and the cosmic evolution of galaxy sizes is an important observational diagnostic for constraining galaxy evolution models. The effective radius is probably the most widely used indicator of galaxy size. We used the TNG50-SKIRT Atlas to investigate the wavelength dependence of the effective radius of galaxies at optical and near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths. We find that, on average, the effective radius in every band exceeds the stellar mass effective radius, and that this excess systematically decreases with increasing wavelength. The optical g-band (NIR Ks-band) effective radius is on average 58% (13%) larger than the stellar mass effective radius. Effective radii measured from dust-obscured images are systematically larger than those measured from dust-free images, although the effect is limited (8.7% in the g-band, 2.1% in the Ks-band). We find that stellar population gradients are the dominant factor (about 80%) in driving the wavelength dependence of the effective radius, and that differential dust attenuation is a secondary factor (20%). Comparing our results to recent observational data, we find offsets in the absolute values of the median effective radii, up to 50% for the population of blue galaxies. We find better agreement in the slope of the wavelength dependence of the effective radius, with red galaxies having a slightly steeper slope than green-blue galaxies. Comparing our effective radii with those of galaxies from the Siena Galaxy Atlas in separate bins in z-band absolute magnitude and g-z colour, we find excellent agreement for the reddest galaxies, but again significant offsets for the blue populations: up to 70% for galaxies around Mz=-21.5. This difference in median effective radius for the bluer galaxies is most probably due to (abridged...)., Comment: 11 pages, 10 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Galaxy morphology is a powerful diagnostic to assess the realism of cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. Determining the morphology of simulated galaxies requires the generation of synthetic images through 3D radiative transfer post-processing that properly accounts for different stellar populations and interstellar dust attenuation. We use the SKIRT code to generate the TNG50-SKIRT Atlas, a synthetic UV to near-infrared broadband image atlas for a complete stellar-mass selected sample of 1154 galaxies extracted from the TNG50 cosmological simulation at $z=0$. The images have a high spatial resolution (100 pc) and a wide field of view (160 kpc). In addition to the dust-obscured images, we also release dust-free images and physical parameter property maps with matching characteristics. As a sanity check and preview application we discuss the UVJ diagram of the galaxy sample. We investigate the effect of dust attenuation on the UVJ diagram and find that it affects both the star-forming and the quiescent galaxy populations. The quiescent galaxy region is polluted by younger and star-forming highly inclined galaxies, while dust attenuation induces a separation in inclination of the star-forming galaxy population, with low-inclination galaxies remaining at the blue side of the diagram and high-inclination galaxies systematically moving towards the red side. This image atlas can be used for a variety of other applications, including galaxy morphology studies and the investigation of local scaling relations. We publicly release the images and parameter maps, and we invite the community to use them., Comment: 13 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

We have carried out HST snapshot observations at 1.1 $\mu$m of 281 candidate strongly lensed galaxies identified in the wide-area extragalactic surveys conducted with the Herschel space observatory. Our candidates comprise systems with flux densities at $500\,\mu$m$ S_{500}\geq 80$ mJy. We model and subtract the surface brightness distribution for 130 systems, where we identify a candidate for the foreground lens candidate. After combining visual inspection, archival high-resolution observations, and lens subtraction, we divide the systems into different classes according to their lensing likelihood. We confirm 65 systems to be lensed. Of these, 30 are new discoveries. We successfully perform lens modelling and source reconstruction on 23 systems, where the foreground lenses are isolated galaxies and the background sources are detected in the HST images. All the systems are successfully modelled as a singular isothermal ellipsoid. The Einstein radii of the lenses and the magnifications of the background sources are consistent with previous studies. However, the background source circularised radii (between 0.34 kpc and 1.30 kpc) are $\sim$3 times smaller than the ones measured in the sub-mm/mm for a similarly selected and partially overlapping sample. We compare our lenses with those in the SLACS survey, confirming that our lens-independent selection is more effective at picking up fainter and diffuse galaxies and group lenses. This sample represents the first step towards characterising the near-IR properties and stellar masses of the gravitationally lensed dusty star-forming galaxies., Comment: 57 pages, 18 figures, 11 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Observations have found black holes spanning ten orders of magnitude in mass across most of cosmic history. The Kerr black hole solution is however provisional as its behavior at infinity is incompatible with an expanding universe. Black hole models with realistic behavior at infinity predict that the gravitating mass of a black hole can increase with the expansion of the universe independently of accretion or mergers, in a manner that depends on the black hole's interior solution. We test this prediction by considering the growth of supermassive black holes in elliptical galaxies over $0

The assembly of stellar and supermassive black hole (SMBH) mass in elliptical galaxies since $z\sim1$ can help to diagnose the origins of locally-observed correlations between SMBH mass and stellar mass. We therefore construct three samples of elliptical galaxies, one at $z\sim0$ and two at $0.7\lesssim z \lesssim2.5$, and quantify their relative positions in the $M_{BH}-M_*$ plane. Using a Bayesian analysis framework, we find evidence for translational offsets in both stellar mass and SMBH mass between the local sample and both higher redshift samples. The offsets in stellar mass are small, and consistent with measurement bias, but the offsets in SMBH mass are much larger, reaching a factor of seven between $z\sim1$ and $z\sim0$. The magnitude of the SMBH offset may also depend on redshift, reaching a factor of $\sim20$ at $z\sim 2$. The result is robust against variation in the high and low redshift samples and changes in the analysis approach. The magnitude and redshift evolution of the offset are challenging to explain in terms of selection and measurement biases. We conclude that either there is a physical mechanism that preferentially grows SMBHs in elliptical galaxies at $z\lesssim 2$, or that selection and measurement biases are both underestimated, and depend on redshift., Comment: ApJ, accepted

Outsourcing anomaly detection to third-parties can allow data owners to overcome resource constraints (e.g., in lightweight IoT devices), facilitate collaborative analysis (e.g., under distributed or multi-party scenarios), and benefit from lower costs and specialized expertise (e.g., of Managed Security Service Providers). Despite such benefits, a data owner may feel reluctant to outsource anomaly detection without sufficient privacy protection. To that end, most existing privacy solutions would face a novel challenge, i.e., preserving privacy usually requires the difference between data entries to be eliminated or reduced, whereas anomaly detection critically depends on that difference. Such a conflict is recently resolved under a local analysis setting with trusted analysts (where no outsourcing is involved) through moving the focus of differential privacy (DP) guarantee from "all" to only "benign" entries. In this paper, we observe that such an approach is not directly applicable to the outsourcing setting, because data owners do not know which entries are "benign" prior to outsourcing, and hence cannot selectively apply DP on data entries. Therefore, we propose a novel iterative solution for the data owner to gradually "disentangle" the anomalous entries from the benign ones such that the third-party analyst can produce accurate anomaly results with sufficient DP guarantee. We design and implement our Differentially Private Outsourcing of Anomaly Detection (DPOAD) framework, and demonstrate its benefits over baseline Laplace and PainFree mechanisms through experiments with real data from different application domains.

Gas cooling processes in the interstellar medium (ISM) are key to understanding how star-formation processes occur in galaxies. Far-infrared (FIR) fine-structure emission lines can be used as a tool to understand the gas conditions and trace the different phases of the ISM. We model the most important far-infrared (FIR) emission lines throughout cosmic time back to $z=6$ with cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. We study how different physical parameters, such as the interstellar radiation field (ISRF) and metallicity, impact the ISM phases traced by FIR line luminosities and connect those with the star-formation rate (SFR). We implement a physically motivated multi-phase model of the ISM by post-processing EAGLE cosmological simulation with Cloudy look-up tables. In this model, we assume four phases of the ISM: dense molecular gas, neutral atomic gas, diffuse ionised gas (DIG) and HII regions. Our model shows good agreement with the observed luminosity-SFR relation up to $z=6$ in the FIR emission lines analysed and we also provide linear fits. Our predictions also agree with observations in terms of diagnostic diagrams involving various line ratios. We find that [C II] is the best SFR tracer of the FIR lines even though it traces multiple ISM phases, while [O III] and [N II] can be used to understand the DIG-HII balance in the ionised phase. In addition, line ratios like [C II]/[O III] and [N II/[O I] are useful to trace parameters such as ISRF, metallicity and specific star-formation rate. These results help to interpret observations of FIR line emission from the local Universe to high-$z$ galaxies., Comment: 22 pages, 18 figures, 3 tables (plus appendix). Submitted to A&A

We study stellar and black hole mass assembly in a sample of 42 infrared-luminous galaxy mergers at z<0.3 by combining results from radiative transfer modelling with archival measures of molecular gas and black hole mass. The ratios of stellar mass, molecular gas mass, and black hole mass to each other are consistent with those of massive gas-rich galaxies at z<0.3. The advanced mergers may show increased black hole mass to stellar mass ratios, consistent with the transition from AGN to ellipticals and implying substantial black hole mass growth over the course of the merger. Star formation rates are enhanced relative to the local main sequence, by factors of ~100 in the starburst and ~1.8 in the host. The starburst star formation rates appear distinct to star formation in the main sequence at all redshifts up to at least z~5. Starbursts may prefer late-stage mergers, but are observed at any merger stage. We do not find evidence that the starbursts in these low-redshift systems substantially increase the total stellar mass, with a soft upper limit on the stellar mass increase from starburst activity of about a factor of two. In contrast, 12 objects show evidence for super-Eddington accretion, associated with late-stage mergers, suggesting that many AGN in infrared-luminous mergers go through a super-Eddington phase. The super-Eddington phase may increase black hole mass by up to an order of magnitude at an accretion efficiency of 42+/-33% over a period of 44+/-22Myr. Our results imply that super-Eddington accretion is an important black hole growth channel in infrared-luminous galaxies at all redshifts., Comment: MNRAS Accepted

Grassland restoration is a critical means to safeguard grassland ecological degradation. To alleviate the extensive human labors and boost the restoration efficiency, UAV is promising for its fully automatic capability yet still waits to be exploited. This paper progresses this emerging technology by explicitly considering the realistic constraints of the UAV and the grassland degradation while planning the grassland restoration. To this end, the UAV-enabled restoration process is first mathematically modeled as the maximization of restoration areas of the UAV under the limited battery energy of UAV, the grass seeds weight, the number of restored areas, and the corresponding sizes. Then we analyze that, by considering these constraints, this original problem emerges two conflict objectives, namely the shortest flight path and the optimal areas allocation. As a result, the maximization of restoration areas turns out to be a composite of a trajectory design problem and an areas allocation problem that are highly coupled. From the perspective of optimization, this requires solving two NP-hard problems of both the traveling salesman problem (TSP) and the multidimensional knapsack problem (MKP) at the same time. To tackle this complex problem, we propose a cooperative optimization algorithm, called CHAPBILM, to solve those two problems interlacedly by utilizing the interdependencies between them. Multiple simulations verify the conflicts between the trajectory design and areas allocation. The effectiveness of the cooperative optimization algorithm is also supported by the comparisons with traditional optimization methods which do not utilize the interdependencies between the two problems. As a result, the proposed algorithm successfully solves the multiple simulation instances in a near-optimal way.

Galaxy populations show bimodality in a variety of properties: stellar mass, colour, specific star-formation rate, size, and S\'ersic index. These parameters are our feature space. We use an existing sample of 7556 galaxies from the Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey, represented using five features and the K-means clustering technique, showed that the bimodalities are the manifestation of a more complex population structure, represented by between 2 and 6 clusters. Here we use Self Organizing Maps (SOM), an unsupervised learning technique which can be used to visualize similarity in a higher dimensional space using a 2D representation, to map these five-dimensional clusters in the feature space onto two-dimensional projections. To further analyze these clusters, using the SOM information, we agree with previous results that the sub-populations found in the feature space can be reasonably mapped onto three or five clusters. We explore where the "green valley" galaxies are mapped onto the SOM, indicating multiple interstitial populations within the green valley population. Finally, we use the projection of the SOM to verify whether morphological information provided by GalaxyZoo users, for example, if features are visible, can be mapped onto the SOM-generated map. Voting on whether galaxies are smooth, likely ellipticals, or "featured" can reasonably be separated but smaller morphological features (bar, spiral arms) can not. SOMs promise to be a useful tool to map and identify instructive sub-populations in multidimensional galaxy survey feature space, provided they are large enough., Comment: 14 pages, 14 figures, accepted by MNRAS

Understanding the connection between nuclear activity and galaxy environment remains critical in constraining models of galaxy evolution. By exploiting extensive catalogued data from the Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey, we identify a representative sample of 205 quasars at 0.1 < z < 0.35 and establish a comparison sample of galaxies, closely matched to the quasar sample in terms of both stellar mass and redshift. On scales <1 Mpc, the galaxy number counts and group membership of quasars appear entirely consistent with those of the matched galaxy sample. Despite this, we find that quasars are ~1.5 times more likely to be classified as the group center, indicating a potential link between quasar activity and cold gas flows or galaxy interactions associated with rich group environments. On scales of ~a few Mpc, the clustering strength of both samples are statistically consistent and beyond 10 Mpc we find no evidence that quasars trace large scale structures any more than the galaxy control sample. Both populations are found to prefer intermediate-density sheets and filaments to either very high- or very low- density environments. This weak dependence of quasar activity on galaxy environment supports a paradigm in which quasars represent a phase in the lifetime of all massive galaxies and in which secular processes and a group-centric location are the dominant trigger of quasars at low redshift., Comment: 26 pages, 20 figures, accepted to ApJ

The validity of the unified active galactic nuclei (AGN) model has been challenged in the last decade, especially when different types of AGNs are considered to only differ in the viewing angle to the torus. We aim to assess the importance of the viewing angle in classifying different types of Seyfert galaxies in spectral energy distribution (SED) modelling. We retrieve photometric data from publicly available astronomical databases: CDS and NED, to model SEDs with X-CIGALE in a sample of 13 173 Seyfert galaxies located at redshift range from $z=0$ to $z=3.5$, with a median redshift of $z\approx0.2$. We assess whether the estimated viewing angle from the SED models reflects different Seyfert classifications. Two AGN models with either a smooth or clumpy torus structure are adopted in this paper. We find that the viewing angle in Type-1 AGNs is better constrained than in Type-2 AGNs. Limiting the viewing angles representing these two types of AGNs do not affect the physical parameter estimates such as star-formation rate (SFR) or AGN fractional contribution ($f_{\rm{AGN}}$). In addition, the viewing angle is not the most discriminating physical parameter to differentiate Seyfert types. We suggest that the observed and intrinsic AGN disc luminosity can: i) be used in $z<0.5$ studies to distinguish between Type-1 and Type-2 AGNs, and ii) explain the probable evolutionary path between these AGN types. Finally, we propose the use of X-CIGALE for AGN galaxy classification tasks. All data from the 13 173 SED fits are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5221764, Comment: 19 pages, 10 figures, 6 tables (plus appendix). Accepted for publication in MNRAS

We use the SPace Infrared telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA) project as a template to demonstrate how deep spectrophotometric surveys covering large cosmological volumes over extended fields (1-15 square degrees) with a mid-IR imaging spectrometer (17-36 micron) in conjunction with deep 70 micron photometry with a far-IR camera, at wavelengths which are not affected by dust extinction can answer the most crucial questions in current galaxy evolution studies. A SPICA-like mission will be able for the first time to provide an unobscured three dimensional (3-D, i.e. x, y and redshift z) view of galaxy evolution back to an age of the Universe of less than ~2 Gyrs, in the mid-IR rest-frame. This survey strategy will produce a full census of the Star formation Rate (SFR) in the Universe, using Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) bands and fine-structure ionic lines, reaching the characteristic knee of the galaxy luminosity function, where the bulk of the population is distributed, at any redshift up to z ~3.5. Deep follow-up pointed spectroscopic observations with grating spectrometers { onboard the satellite}, across the full IR spectral range (17-210 micron), would simultaneously measure Black Hole Accretion Rate (BHAR), from high-ionization fine-structure lines, and SFR, from PAH and low- to mid-ionization lines in thousands of galaxies from solar to low metallicities, down to the knee of their luminosity functions. The analysis of the resulting atlas of IR spectra will reveal the physical processes at play in evolving galaxies across cosmic time, especially its heavily dust-embedded phase during the activity peak at the cosmic noon (z ~1-3), through IR emission lines and features that are insensitive to the dust obscuration., Comment: Paper accepted for publication on PASA on 5th March 2021, as part of the SPICA Special Issue

Atomic fine structure lines have been detected in the local Universe and at high redshifts over the past decades. The [C II] emission line at 158 $\mu$m is an important observable as it provides constraints on the interstellar medium (ISM) cooling processes. We develop a physically motivated framework to simulate the production of far-infrared line emission from galaxies in a cosmological context. This first paper sets out our methodology and describes its first application, simulating the [C II] 158 $\mu$m line emission in the local Universe. We combine the output from EAGLE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations with a multi-phase model of the ISM. Gas particles are divided into three phases: dense molecular gas, neutral atomic gas and diffuse ionised gas (DIG). We estimate the [C II] line emission from the three phases using a set of Cloudy cooling tables. Our results agree with previous findings regarding the contribution of these three ISM phases to the [C II] emission. Our model shows good agreement with the observed ${\rm L_{[C II]}}$-star formation rate (SFR) relation in the local Universe within 0.4 dex scatter. The fractional contribution to the [C II] line from different ISM phases depends on the total SFR and metallicity. The neutral gas phase dominates the [C II] emission in galaxies with $\rm{SFR}\sim0.01$-$1\,\rm{M_{\odot}}\,\rm{yr^{-1}}$, but the ionised phase dominates at lower SFRs. Galaxies above solar metallicity exhibit lower ${\rm L_{[C II]}}$/SFR ratios for the neutral phase. In comparison, the ${\rm L_{[C II]}}$/SFR ratio in the DIG is stable when metallicity varies. We suggest that the reduced size of the neutral clouds, caused by increased SFRs, is the likely cause for the ${\rm L_{[C II]}}$ deficit at high infrared luminosities, although EAGLE simulations do not reach these luminosities at $z=0$., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A; 16 pages, 11 figures, 4 tables (plus appendix)

Differential privacy (DP) has emerged as a de facto standard privacy notion for a wide range of applications. Since the meaning of data utility in different applications may vastly differ, a key challenge is to find the optimal randomization mechanism, i.e., the distribution and its parameters, for a given utility metric. Existing works have identified the optimal distributions in some special cases, while leaving all other utility metrics (e.g., usefulness and graph distance) as open problems. Since existing works mostly rely on manual analysis to examine the search space of all distributions, it would be an expensive process to repeat such efforts for each utility metric. To address such deficiency, we propose a novel approach that can automatically optimize different utility metrics found in diverse applications under a common framework. Our key idea that, by regarding the variance of the injected noise itself as a random variable, a two-fold distribution may approximately cover the search space of all distributions. Therefore, we can automatically find distributions in this search space to optimize different utility metrics in a similar manner, simply by optimizing the parameters of the two-fold distribution. Specifically, we define a universal framework, namely, randomizing the randomization mechanism of differential privacy (R$^2$DP), and we formally analyze its privacy and utility. Our experiments show that R$^2$DP can provide better results than the baseline distribution (Laplace) for several utility metrics with no known optimal distributions, whereas our results asymptotically approach to the optimality for utility metrics having known optimal distributions. As a side benefit, the added degree of freedom introduced by the two-fold distribution allows R$^2$DP to accommodate the preferences of both data owners and recipients., Comment: To Appear in Proceedings of the 27th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 2020