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Additional file 7: Supplementary Figure 3. Attenuation of macrophage infiltration and expression of TNF-α in calcified vessel walls by oral propionate administration. (a) Immunofluorescence staining for macrophages and TNF-α in calcified vessel walls (original magnification ×100). (b) Quantitative analysis of the CD68-positive area. (c) Quantitative analysis of the TNF-α-positive area. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA (Tukey’s post hoc test). ***P< 0.001, ****P< 0.0001.

Additional file 19: Supplementary Table 8. Effect of Akkermansia on the gut microbiota composition.

Additional file 21: Supplementary Table 10. The average sequencing depth and standard deviation for each dataset in this study.

Additional file 6: Supplementary Figure 2. Oral propionate administration attenuated VDN-induced microbial dysbiosis in rats. (a) Relative abundance of intestinal microbiota constituents at the genus level. (b) Plasma creatinine levels. (c) Ratio between the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. (d-r) Relative abundance of identified differentially abundant bacterial groups at different taxonomic levels. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA or the Kruskal–Wallis test (Tukey or Dunnett post hoc test). NS for P > 0.05, *P

Additional file 8: Supplementary Figure 4. Attenuation of macrophage infiltration and TNF-α expression in calcified vessel walls by rectal propionate administration. (a) Immunofluorescence staining for macrophages and TNF-α in calcified vessel walls (original magnification ×100). (b) Quantitative analysis of the CD68-positive area. (c) Quantitative analysis of the TNF-α-positive area. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA (Tukey post hoc test). NS for P > 0.05, **P< 0.01.

Additional file 4: Supplementary Table 4. Relationship between short-chain fatty acids in faecal samples and clinical indicators.

Additional file 3: Supplementary Table 3. Relationship between short-chain fatty acids in plasma samples and clinical indicators.

Additional file 5: Supplementary Figure 1. Amelioration of VND-induced rat vascular calcification and reduction of inflammation by rectal propionate administration. (a) A flow diagram of the rectal propionate administration experiment. (b) Macroscopic observation of arterial vascular calcification based on alizarin red staining. (c) Quantitative evaluation of calcium content in whole aortas. (d) Observation of vascular calcification of the ascending aorta through alizarin red staining of tissue sections (original magnification ×40). (e) Relative quantification of calcium content for the vessel sections of the ascending aorta. (f), (g) and (h) Concentrations of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in plasma, respectively. AO: pure alcohol and peanut oil; VDN: vitamin D3 and nicotine; SP: sodium propionate. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA (Tukey post hoc test). NS for P > 0.05, ***P

Additional file 9: Supplementary Figure 5. Amelioration of intestinal microbiota imbalance in rats by rectal propionate administration. (a) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) diagram showing the β-diversity of the intestinal microbiota among the three groups. (b) and (c) α-diversity of the intestinal microbiota. (d) Relative abundance of intestinal microbiota constituents at the phylum level. (e) Analysis of the differences in the intestinal microbiota by LEfSe. (f) Spearman’s correlation analysis of the relationship of the intestinal microbiota with LPS and SCFAs. Negative and positive correlations are denoted in blue and red, respectively. (g), (h) and (i) Acetate, propionate and butyrate levels in plasma, respectively. (j), (k) and (l) Acetate, propionate and butyrate concentrations in faeces, respectively. (m) Plasma LPS levels. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA or the Kruskal–Wallis test (Tukey post hoc test). NS for P > 0.05, #P < 0.25, ##P < 0.1, *P< 0.05, ***P< 0.001, ****P< 0.0001.