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Media exposure to graphic images of violence has proliferated in contemporary society, particularly with the advent of social media. Extensive exposure to media coverage immediately after the 9/11 attacks and the Boston Marathon bombings (BMB) was associated with more early traumatic stress symptoms; in fact, several hours of BMB-related daily media exposure was a stronger correlate of distress than being directly exposed to the bombings themselves. Researchers have replicated these findings across different traumatic events, extending this work to document that exposure to graphic images is independently and significantly associated with stress symptoms and poorer functioning. The media exposure-distress association also appears to be cyclical over time, with increased exposure predicting greater distress and greater distress predicting more media exposure following subsequent tragedies. The war in Israel and Gaza, which began on October 7, 2023, provides a current, real-time context to further explore these issues as journalists often share graphic images of death and destruction, making media-based graphic images once again ubiquitous and potentially challenging public well-being. For individuals sharing an identity with the victims or otherwise feeling emotionally connected to the Middle East, it may be difficult to avoid viewing these images. Through a review of research on the association between exposure to graphic images and public health, we discuss differing views on the societal implications of viewing such images and advocate for media literacy campaigns to educate the public to identify mis/disinformation and understand the risks of viewing and sharing graphic images with others.

Street networks allow people and goods to move through cities, but they are vulnerable to disasters like floods, earthquakes, and terrorist attacks. Well-planned network design can make a city more resilient and robust to such disruptions, but we still know little about worldwide patterns of vulnerability, or worldwide empirical relationships between specific design characteristics and resilience. This study quantifies and measures the vulnerability of the street networks of every urban area in the world then models the relationships between vulnerability and street network design characteristics. To do so, we simulate over 2.4 billion trips across more than 8,000 urban areas in 178 countries, while also simulating network disruption events representing floods, earthquakes, and targeted attacks. We find that disrupting high-centrality nodes severely impacts network function. All else equal, networks with higher connectivity, fewer chokepoints, or less circuity are less vulnerable to disruption's impacts. This study thus contributes a new global understanding of network design and vulnerability to the literature. We argue that these design characteristics offer high leverage points for street network resilience and robustness that planners should emphasize when designing or retrofitting urban networks.

While the identification of priestly materials in the book of Joshua is a common part of scholarship at this point, the battle of Jericho in Josh 6 is one text that has not typically been identified as containing priestly elements. In the first part of this article, I argue that the representation of warfare in Josh 6 is constructed around three distinctly priestly elements: its ideology of ḥērem, use of trumpets, and description of the Israelite battle order. In the second part of this article, I explore the implications of this identification across three different compositional models: the Neo-documentary hypothesis, the DtrL hypothesis, and the model of a late priestly (or post-priestly) redaction of the Deuteronomistic History. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of intraregional conflict on food security and subsistence practices in the Central Illinois River Valley (CIRV) during the Mississippian period, particularly between AD 1200 and 1400, a time characterized by escalations in intergroup violence. Utilizing integrated faunal and botanical datasets from two critical archaeological sites – the Lamb site, representing the preconflict phase, and the C. W. Cooper site, indicative of the conflict onset phase – this research elucidates how prolonged warfare necessitated substantial adaptations in subsistence strategies among CIRV Mississippian communities. While much previous research has centered on elite aspects of Mississippian warfare, this study shifts the focus to the broader societal impacts on the daily lives of residents of the CIRV. Findings demonstrate significant shifts in foraging behaviors and resource utilization patterns, reflecting strategic responses to the challenges and hazards posed by persistent warfare. By highlighting the adaptability of these communities in the face of warfare and environmental stressors, this research contributes valuable perspectives to the anthropological understanding of the interrelations between warfare and food systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prehispanic agricultural populations in the central Andes exhibit some of the highest rates of lethal and sublethal trauma ever recorded. Explanations for high rates of violence focus on what factors drove proactive conflict. While it is true that incentives for proactive violence must exist for high rates of trauma to ensue, it is far less recognized how ecological conditions may promote economic activities that constrain violence avoidance tactics and thus influence rates of violence. Here, we draw on models from behavioral ecology to generate predictions about how violence co-varies with environmental gradients, related subsistence strategies, and attendant defensive tactics. We hypothesize that rates of violence will be highest in marginal and variable environments where high-mobility subsistence strategies serve to reduce subsistence risk while increasing the costs of violence avoidance. Our results show that high elevation locations with variable topography where high mobility subsistence strategies are common exhibit the highest rates of generalized interpersonal violence. These results suggest that as ecological conditions become marginal and variable, risk-reducing subsistence strategies are emphasized, which result in increased exposure to violence. This study shows that environmental influences on the efficacy of violence avoidance tactics are important for explaining variability in rates of violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Following the Hamas terror attack on Israeli towns on October 2023, 250 individuals were taken into captivity. On November–December 2023, during the cease‐fire deal, 26 women and children were released. This study is the first to describe the physical and behavioural findings in children and their mothers in the immediate phase of returning home from captivity. Methods: This is a retrospective study describing the clinical characteristics of the returnees after 49–53 days in captivity. Patients were admitted to a designated unit in the Schnieder Children's Medical Center of Israel on November–December 2023. The hospitalisation duration was 1–9 days. All patients were evaluated according to a detailed protocol and were treated respectively. Results: Patient population included 19 children (ranged 2–18 years old) and 7 women (ranged 34–78 years old). The most common clinical findings upon return included significant weight loss, psychological trauma, complications of poor hygiene and complications of recent shrapnel injuries. Microbiology tests were positive for multiple gastrointestinal pathogens. Serologic screening tests were positive for various infectious diseases. Conclusion: Clinical findings in this time period were diverse and required the attention of a multidisciplinary team. Long term clinical and psychological effects are yet to be known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Russo-Ukrainian War has produced a myriad of necropolitical discourses regarding the justification of death and the subjugation of lives to potential death. Contemporary necropolitical scholarship has primarily focused on the civilian, subaltern dimension of this paradigm in a wider context, yet in this war, combatants from the opposing armed forces are the individuals most consistently embedded in these conditions of potential death. How, then, is the potential death of the combatant justified and legitimized? Through a critical engagement with the concept of the border as the front, this article will explore how the subjugation of Ukrainian and Russian combatants to the conditions of potential death is discursively justified through a framework of the necropolitical logics of survival and martyrdom. Through these logics, two competing necropolitical regimes of truth have arisen, nevertheless leading to the same conclusion – the mobilized bodies of the combatants at the front – yet promising different versions of a life beyond death itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Armed conflicts are usually associated with high mortality and morbidity rates, with unpredictable workload, injuries and illnesses. Identifying emergency nurses' views of the core competencies required to enable them to work effectively in hospitals in areas of armed conflict is critical. It is important to inform the requisite standards of care and facilitate the translation of knowledge into safe, quality care. Aim: The aim of this study was to identify emergency nurses' perceptions of core competencies necessary to work in hospitals in the context of armed conflict. Method: A descriptive qualitative phase of a mixed‐method study using semi‐structured interviews with participants was conducted from June to July 2019. The COREQ guideline for reporting qualitative research was followed. Findings: A sample of 15 participants was interviewed. The participant perceptions provided a different perspective of core competencies required for emergency nurses in the context of armed conflict, culminating in four main areas: (i) personal preparedness , (ii) leadership, (iii) communication and (iv) assessment and intervention. Conclusion: This study identified emergency nurses' perceptions of their core competencies. Personal preparedness, leadership, communication, assessment and intervention were identified as contributing to calmness of character, confidence in care and cultural awareness for care in this setting and were essential for them to work effectively when managing victims of armed conflict in emergency departments. Implications for nursing practice and health policy: The findings of this study are important and novel because the researchers sought the perspectives of emergency nurses who have experience in receiving patients from armed conflict firsthand. The findings will inform policymakers in those settings regarding standard of care, education and drills for hospital nurses in optimizing armed conflict care response outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article attempts to identify the anonymous Franciscan bishop who, according to the Lanercost Chronicle, participated at the Battle of Neville's Cross, Durham, against the invading Scots, on 17 October 1346. The Franciscan 'Matthew episcopus Manchensis', previously suggested to be the bishop in question, is shown to derive from a scribal error, but even the corrected Matthew bishop Organchensis was probably not the prelate in question. Rather, it is argued, another Durham suffragan, frater Richard bishop of Bisaccia, may have been in the man at Neville's Cross. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the Israel-Hamas conflict, focusing on the 'survive-win' cycle and the concept of attrition in armed conflict. It highlights how power differentials between combatants – like Hamas and the Israeli Defense Force – lead to strategies like positional warfare and Fabian tactics, ultimately resulting in wars of attrition. Further, research illustrates that attrition is a fundamental aspect of conflict, challenging the idea that Western militaries should avoid the approach. Moreover, precision munitions in urban areas, such as Gaza City, still lead to significant casualties and collateral damage, urging a realistic acknowledgment of attrition in warfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Passages promoting divinely approved violence permeate the biblical account. One Christian interpretative strategy, favored in premodern times but largely considered too arbitrary today, attempts to view these laws and stories of war as depicting battles against invisible forces of evil. This article attempts to strengthen this hermeneutical approach by focusing on a possible intertextual echo in Luke's Gospel. It compares two sets of instructions—Israel's military strategy against hostile cities in Deut 20:1–14 and the missionary blueprint, commanded by Jesus, for proclaiming the kingdom in Luke 10:1–24—and proposes that, in contrast to Israel's rules for warfare, Luke's account encourages Jesus's disciples to approach the encountered cities nonviolently and turn their imagined swords against spiritual enemies. Consequently, the study suggests that the explored intertextual link might also function contrariwise and contribute toward establishing the metaphorical reading as a lasting option for interpreting biblical war narratives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chiara Libiseller reviews Jakub Eberle and Jan Daniel’s timely book on the politics of Hybrid Warfare (HW) in Czechia. According to Libiseller, the book provides an insightful analysis of the detrimental effects of the HW discourse on democratic politics in Czechia. Leveraging a number of critical traditions, the book deepens the critique of the HW concept, which hitherto was often limited to aspects of conceptual clarity or newness. Yet, the authors' engagement with the power of the concept could have gone even further: by examining these trends as unique to Czechia and as unique to the HW discourse, the authors remain unable to address the HW discourse's international dimensions and its feeding on other militarizing discourses. Libiseller concludes that Eberle and Daniel’s book remains a powerful call to move away from Russia-centered narratives and reclaim agency to improve democratic and societal strength.

Abstract Some of the most notable human behavioral palimpsests result from warfare and its durable traces in the form of defensive architecture and strategic infrastructure. For premodern periods, this architecture is often understudied at the large scale, resulting in a lack of appreciation for the enormity of the costs and impacts of military spending over the course of human history. In this article, we compare the information gleaned from the study of the fortified cities of the Early Historic period of the Indian subcontinent (c. 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE) with the precolonial medieval era (9-17th centuries CE). Utilizing in-depth archaeological and historical studies along with local sightings and citizen-science blogs to create a comprehensive data set and map series in a “big-data” approach that makes use of heterogeneous data sets and presence-absence criteria, we discuss how the architecture of warfare shifted from an emphasis on urban defense in the Early Historic period to an emphasis on territorial offense and defense in the medieval period. Many medieval fortifications are known from only local reports and have minimal identifying information but can still be studied in the aggregate using a least-shared denominator approach to quantification and mapping.

The war carried out in extreme conditions requires exceptional training involving a degree of difficulty far above most situations encountered on the battlefield, because, on the one hand, the fighter performs missions in conditions totally different from those of a classic warfare and, on the other on the other hand, he must face special physical and mental demands. In order to be able to meet all the demands imposed by the hardness and complexity of these areas of action, it is necessary for the fighters who act in such environments to have a versatile training. Along with the intellectual, technical, tactical and psychological training, the physical component of the training plays a basic role, which in my opinion constitutes a pivot of all the other components of the training. In the paper, along with the demands and rigors of extreme environments, there are presented a series of benefits of an exceptional physical training which, by ensuring a solid motor capacity, also ensures a part of the mental preparation for the fight, elements that are the basis of the training and consolidation of specific combat aptitudes and skills.

Some of the most notable human behavioral palimpsests result from warfare and its durable traces in the form of defensive architecture and strategic infrastructure. For premodern periods, this architecture is often understudied at the large scale, resulting in a lack of appreciation for the enormity of the costs and impacts of military spending over the course of human history. In this article, we compare the information gleaned from the study of the fortified cities of the Early Historic period of the Indian subcontinent (c. 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE) with the precolonial medieval era (9-17th centuries CE). Utilizing in-depth archaeological and historical studies along with local sightings and citizen-science blogs to create a comprehensive data set and map series in a "big-data" approach that makes use of heterogeneous data sets and presence-absence criteria, we discuss how the architecture of warfare shifted from an emphasis on urban defense in the Early Historic period to an emphasis on territorial offense and defense in the medieval period. Many medieval fortifications are known from only local reports and have minimal identifying information but can still be studied in the aggregate using a least-shared denominator approach to quantification and mapping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing interpretations of Deut 20:19–20 concerning the clause kī hāʾādām ʿēṣ haśśādeh have failed to sufficiently explain the meaning of the law against felling food-bearing trees in times of war. I argue that ʾādām is not the generic Hebrew word “human,” but a rare masculine singular bi-form of the more common ʾădāmāh, “land.” Drawing on both comparative philology and Mesopotamian material about warfare practices, the paper also shows that understanding the equation as one between “land” (rather than humans) and trees better accounts for the law and its placement in its literary context. D distinguishes between far lands and near lands that will be part of the Israelites’ inheritance. If land is soon-to-be conquered, then food-bearing trees are valuable, not only for any immediate fruit, but also for the wealth that they promise in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the impacts of war and siege on farmers' livelihoods in Tigray (2020–2022), Ethiopia, through field observations during the crisis, and a literature review. We found military tactics and activities alongside institutional changes were the main pathways driving famine among vulnerable farming communities through destruction of crops, damage to property, and slaughter of livestock. Moreover, farmers were deprived of access to alternative sources of livelihood such as beekeeping, traditional gold mining, and seasonal migration. Notably, absence of freedom of movement and withdrawal of national and international aid organizations limited the farmers' survival options. The crisis also aggravated the pre-war food insecurity in the area. We argue that economic rehabilitation must be accompanied by the building of a durable peace as soon as possible to restore sustainable livelihoods for farming communities in Tigray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently Western military history has concentrated on battles, technology, and the biographies of great generals. The roots of this tradition of history writing lie in the Ancient Greeks and this orientation has carried through to the present. Military historians studying other cultures, like China's, have usually tried to make very different traditions of commemorating war match or fit into the Western tradition. Although there is no established Chinese tradition of military history writing, an implicit tradition embedded in its extensive historiography suggests an emphasis on conflicts between military systems rather than specific weapons, battles, or individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648 was the most devastating conflict in European history prior to the twentieth century and the greatest demographic crisis since the Black Death of the fourteenth century. Accordingly, many scholars have examined the 'human cost' of the Thirty Years' War both in broader studies of the military and civilian experience of the conflict and with an increased focus on the multiple types of localised civil-military interactions which characterised the 'small war' or Kleinkrieg. This article takes these studies further, by examining how refugees – a neglected manifestation of the 'human cost' of the Thirty Years' War – could in turn have a significant impact on how warfare was conducted locally and on the course of the conflict itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently Western military history has concentrated on battles, technology, and the biographies of great generals. The roots of this tradition of history writing lie in the Ancient Greeks and this orientation has carried through to the present. Military historians studying other cultures, like China's, have usually tried to make very different traditions of commemorating war match or fit into the Western tradition. Although there is no established Chinese tradition of military history writing, an implicit tradition embedded in its extensive historiography suggests an emphasis on conflicts between military systems rather than specific weapons, battles, or individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Will proliferated satellites enable a transparent battlefield in a way that might transform continental warfare? Many now think so. We argue, however, that anti-satellite (ASAT) capabilities will limit satellites’ potential contribution, but only if land forces adapt by deploying ground-based jamming and dazzling technologies. In a sustained measure-countermeasure competition, these non-kinetic approaches enjoy advantages that can deny an opponent effective use of space for battlefield surveillance. If ground forces contest the use of space in this way, the future battlefield will be much less transparent than many now expect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spacefaring has emerged as a critical element of global security and strategic intelligence, playing a significant role in all aspects of national power: diplomacy, information, military, and economics (DIME). China's 2007 anti-satellite (ASAT) test ushered in a new era in spacefaring. China conducted a devastating direct ascent ASAT test that destroyed a weather satellite, resulting in over 3000 pieces of space debris. The unexpected nature of this test caught the international spacefaring community off guard, and gave rise to immediate concerns among spacefaring powers, prompting questions about China's intention. This was a stark reminder of the multifaceted dimensions of power associated with space exploration, encompassing all the DIME soft and hard power components. These were crucial in motivating China's decision to conduct the test and shaping the responses of other spacefaring nations. The United States and China have been competitors in space for decades. However, China's recent advancements in space and acts of aggression like the ASAT test have raised concerns with the space-faring community. The ASAT test and other potentially disruptive activities also present a thorny warning intelligence problem, as many of these activities span national power elements. Using the theoretical framework of realism, this paper assesses the significance of China's ASAT test through the lens of DIME components to shed light on its implications on global security and propose a set of intelligence recommendations intended to prevent strategic surprises in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the history of the Türkenbeute manuscripts in Halle. The decades following the Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683 witnessed an influx into Central-Europe of Qur'ans, prayer books, Qur'anic commentaries, and legal compendia that had been looted from battlefields and conquered cities. Many such items found their way to Halle, where they came to stock the libraries attached to the complex of schools and the orphanage founded in 1698 by the Pietist theologian, August Hermann Francke (1663–1727). Following a sketch of the manuscripts' provenance, the article summarises the factors that encouraged the study of the 'Oriental' languages at Halle in the early eighteenth century. It then documents the work of two Pietist students of Arabic, Christian Benedict Michaelis (1680–1764) and Johann Heinrich Callenberg (1694–1760), in order to show how the spoils of war could be put to use to further the aspirations of scholarship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Violence seems to have been a constant in Egyptian history, as attested by documentary sources. The material culture also reflects this state of violence; however, anthropological findings, although present, are not as numerous as might be expected. In the present study, we analyze the injuries found in three crania (New Kingdom, 1500–1070 BCE) from the necropolis of Qubbet el‐Hawa, near the island of Elephantine (Aswan, Egypt). All three cases are adult males with several injuries caused by a sharp‐edged weapon, with no signs of survival. The macroscopic analysis of the wounds was combined with archaeological and historical data to provide an explanation of the possible weapon used and the possible scenarios (intergroup or intragroup violence) where these deaths could have occurred. These cranial injuries leave no doubt as to the intentionality and repetition in the act of causing death. These findings offer clear evidence and reliable information that contributes to the understanding of interpersonal violence and its potential causes in ancient Egypt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a nuanced perspective on leadership-related popular literature, suggesting that it warrants attention from critical scholars due to its broad influence across various communities and contexts. Focusing specifically on retired Navy SEAL officers Jocko Willink and Leif Babin’s books, Extreme Ownership (2017) and its sequel The Dichotomy of Leadership (2018), the study employs complexity leadership theory (CLT) to analyze combat leadership principles articulated in these works. Findings reveal a substantial alignment between Willink and Babin’s practice-oriented framework and CLT, particularly evident in how CLT’s leadership types incorporate these principles. In the context of the armed forces, enabling leadership heavily relies on the operational system, which sets the parameters for adaptive actions that enabling leadership seeks to promote within these constraints (e.g. standard operating procedures, disciplined training, and Commander’s Intent). The study also suggests that Willink and Babin’s books serve as a counterbalance to the romanticization of complexity and collective command, a phenomenon highlighted in previous research. Ideally, theory and practice converge, as demonstrated in this article. It shows that the practice-oriented insights of Willink and Babin find support in theoretical knowledge. Conversely, these insights derived from practice potentially contribute to the development of CLT in the context of warfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While maintaining minimal deterrence capabilities, South America's has not experienced inter-state warfare in almost three decades. Internal security challenges exist, while militaries are involved in various other missions, including humanitarian assistance, search-and-rescue, combating wildfires, and combating environmental crimes like illegal fishing and illegal mining. This analysis will discuss the evolving role of South American insurgencies vis-à-vis small wars, insurgencies, and other combat and non-combat missions by focusing on regional air fleets. The types of rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft Air Forces, Armies, and Navies are purchasing (or domestically manufacturing) explain what kinds of missions and threats armed services are focused on today and tomorrow's priorities. Small case studies of helicopter and combat warplane fleets across South American militaries will help us understand what regional services spend their often-limited funds on. Moreover, we will address how regional air fleets may be composed a decade from now, by 2034, considering regional geopolitics, missions, and priorities (including environmental protection). Confidence-building mechanisms and the influence, or lack thereof, of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on recent acquisition programs and strategies will provide a more complete analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Among the Pacific Northwest Coast Indians of North America before and during the extended era of European contact, a pervasive institution known as the potlatch governed human relations through reciprocity rather than the hierarchical state. Potlatching involved recurring intertribal feasting, gift giving, ceremonial dance, storytelling, oratory, dispute resolution, declarations of claim or right, and some measure of property destruction. The tribes referred to this network of publicly declared favors given and owed and promises made and received as their customary "potlatch law." Like law in the Western world, it was the foundation on which their economies rested. The potlatch memorialized obligations, enforced property rights, insured against risk, promoted knowledge accumulation, supplied investment capital, and served as a system of fractional reserve banking. Beyond that, it was the foundation of the tribes' unique culture. The potlatch provides fascinating insight into the nuance and power of reciprocity in ordering human relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 220s and the early 210s, the Antigonid and the Illyrians cooperated politically and militarily more than once: they fought together against Kleomenes of Sparta during the reign of Antigonos Doson and against the Aitolians during the reign of Philip V. The Illyrians proved to be valuable allies for the latter Antigonid because they provided not only well-trained infantry but also offered naval support to the Macedonian campaigns. However, by 211, Philip V had conquered the lands that had belonged to the Ardiaei dynasty of Illyria and controlled the Balkan peninsula from east to west. The only cities that were not under his rule were the Greek cities of the coast: Orikos, Apollonia, and Epidamnos. The Illyrian tribes under the defeated king Skerdilaidas were confined in the north. This study investigates the circumstances that led the Antigonids to go from friends to enemies of the Illyrians. It shows that Philip’s relationship with the Illyrians was initially prompted by his philos, Taurion, who fostered cooperation between Macedonia and the forces of the Ardiaei. However, Demetrios of Pharos’ arrival at the Antigonid court changed the political scene completely. By analyzing Polybius and Justin’s account, the paper highlights the role Demetrios of Pharos played in Illyrian foreign relations with Macedonia and the dramatic impact of his relationship with Philip V on Hellenistic events. Demetrios’ advice to the king on rethinking his military tactics and objectives was conducive to the Macedonian successes in the Social War. However, the real agenda of Demetrios became clear with time: Demetrios hoped to restore his leadership position in the Illyrian basileia as a local ally of Macedonia at the expense of his rival Skerdilaidas, a friend of the Romans. Although Demetrios’ death compromised the project, it brought unwanted Roman attention to Macedonia.

This work assesses the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on modern warfare. AI has led to a new arms race, which has impacted military dynamics among the superpowers in the 21st century. The study aims to evaluate the propagation of AI-powered weapons from the vantage point of ethics, international humanitarian law, and arms control. Secondary data is engaged for this study, and the exploratory and descriptive research design is adopted alongside a thematic analysis for data synthesis. The theories of technological determinism and consequentialism are adopted to observe the effects of technological advancement on weaponry alongside the ethical consequences of these weapons to safeguard human rights in combat scenarios. The study discovered that AI has led to a new arms race among the superpowers, and there is a need to advocate for arms control measures to promote international peace and security. The intersection between AI and arms proliferation, as well as how it has affected peace and security dynamics, was also detailed. The work concludes by reasserting the need for substantive international humanitarian laws and arms control efforts for lethal and autonomous weapons.

Abstract: After the Black Death, serfdom disappeared in Western Europe while making a resurgence in Eastern Europe. What explains this difference? I argue that serfdom was against the interests of the sovereign and was only imposed when the nobility, who needed serfdom to maintain their economic and political standing, had leverage to impose their will. The nobility gained this power through financing the state. Using data from the fourteenth through the eighteenth centuries, I show that serfdom was imposed and strengthened in areas where sovereigns had few other resources to finance the state.

IntroductionThe Safavid era can be divided into two distinct periods. The first extends from the inception of the Safavid dynasty to the 1639 Peace Treaty of Zuhab, while the second period spans from the Peace Treaty of Zuhab to the fall of Isfahan at the hands of Afghans. During the first period, Safavid kings exhibited warlike tendencies, and religious authorities were not allowed to interfere in political matters. However, in the second period, Safavid kings embraced Sharia principles more openly, elevating clerics to top positions in the religious structure. The present research aimed to explore the impact of Sharia tendencies on the Safavid military spirit and army. The study addressed the following question: How did Sharia tendencies and the close relations between Safavid kings and clerics influence military responsibilities and duties?Results and DiscussionThe formative years of the Safavid state began with the establishment of the Safavid dynasty in 907 A.H. and reached it apex with the demise of Shah Abbas I in 1038 A.H. Throughout this period, the kings were prominently characterized by militarism and bellicose tendencies. The Safavids came out victorious or, at the very least, undefeated in their wars with the Uzbeks and Ottomans—except Shah Ismail’s defeat in the Battle of Ghazdewan and the Battle of Chaldiran. Even the defeat in the Battle of Ghazdewan (918 A.H.) occurred in Shah Ismail’s absence. By sword, the Shah or king could consolidate his godlike power and the authority of the Safavid king as a religious leader—a position embraced by his subjects. Consequently, during the first period (from the beginning to the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I in 1038 A.H.), the Safavid kings proved their legitimacy as religious leaders by relying on battlefield prowess and warfare, establishing themselves as figures with purely religious legitimacy who would staunchly uphold the Sharia. During this period, the clerics yielded to the sultan’s authority and power without dissent.Following the Peace Treaty of Zuhab with the Ottoman Empire in 1049 A.H. and the shift from confrontation to subjugation in dealings with the Uzbeks, the Safavid kings found themselves with ample free time as they withdrew from the battlefield, hence a limited space for engaging in warfare. The reigns of Shah Safi and Shah Abbas II, the two Safavid kings, mark a transition from militarism towards closer relations with clerics. A relationship existed between the decline of warfare and the increasing influence of clerical figures. The first notable change in the transition process was the withdrawal of the kings from participation in battles, ultimately resulting in the Peace Treaty of Zuhab. The king’s participation in wars had bolstered the Safavid authority, with religious leaders yielding to the conquering king. However, Shah Safi would not show any desire for war.Shah Abbas II stood out as the last warrior king, renowned for his ambition and valor in taking extraordinary measures. He was the last king to personally lead the Iranian army and capture Kandahar. Notably, during his reign, following the peace treaty with the Ottomans and the decreased hostility from the Uzbeks, the number of wars significantly diminished compared to the early Safavid period. Consequently, even a king like Shah Abbas II could not fully demonstrate his royal and martial capabilities in a time characterized by relative peace.ConclusionDuring the first Safavid period, the active involvement of Shah Ismail, Shah Tahmasp, and Shah Abbas I in battles allowed them to assert their authority over military commanders, state officials, and clerics. However, this dynamic shifted following the Peace Treaty of Zuhab in 1049 A.H. and the subsequent withdrawal of kings from the battlefield. The diminished military preparedness along the eastern and western borders resulted in a void in the king’s responsibilities regarding military affairs, thus granting the kings more free time. As the kings withdrew from the battlefield, their relationships with military and state officials underwent transformation. The cessation of battlefield activities necessitated a redefinition of the king’s role and obligations, a process which took place during the long period of peace with the Ottomans. The last Safavid kings, namely Shah Suleiman and Sultan Hussein, openly embraced the Sharia by engaging in dialogue, consultations, and meetings with clerics and religious scholars. This approach resulted in the legitimization of the king and his court in the eyes of clerics and the broader religious community. However, this shift in focus left the kings unbalanced and significantly reduced their military efficacy and performance. Therefore, the king’s attention shifted away from military, political, and governmental duties, leading to neglect of the army, drastic reductions in troop numbers, and a decline in military training. This trajectory persisted for several decades and contributed to the eventual fall of the Safavid dynasty.

Syria has been struggling with a prolonged and brutal war for over a decade, leaving much of the country in devastation and its forests severely degraded. While many studies have identified logging for firewood as a significant driver of deforestation during the war, there is a notable absence of research specifically addressing logging behavior within the context of war. This research seeks to address this gap by examining the changes in logging behavior among local communities, the effects of violence and socioeconomic variables on wood harvesting, the contribution of wood income to people's survival during the war. To do that, we conducted survey questionnaires in two coastal villages in Syria—Blouta and Nehel al Annaze—which experienced high and low levels of violence, respectively. Our findings reveal that logging activities increased once the war began, with more people involved in forest harvesting and average days spent logging per week significantly increasing from 1.5 to 4. Additionally, the war appeared to reduce the gender disparity in logging activities: before the conflict, women engaged in logging significantly more frequently than men, but this difference became insignificant during the war. The level of violence alone did not significantly affect the amount of wood logged per month. Furthermore, income generated from wood harvesting played a substantial role in bridging the gap between the monthly income needed to cover their basic necessities and the actual income of families in both villages by 46.94 % and 84.83 % of the gap in Nehel al Annaze and Blouta, respectively. These results highlight the crucial role of forest resources in supporting rural livelihoods during times of war. Post-war effective forest management will be vital to ensure the sustainable use and recovery of forest resources, supporting both ecological restoration and economic stability for the rural communities.

This article studies the depiction of gender in Iberian and Sephardic chapbooks. It showcases liminal experiences of women in the context of warfare and conyugal relationships. Women shift between passive and active performances where they often trangress imposed gender roles.

The study of an Arabic newspaper published by the British during World War II shows how photographs played an important role in the propaganda campaign to gain Arab support in the Middle East. While the newspaper purported to cover the war, in actuality, the content contained mostly cultural photographs that contributed to the Allies' implementation of psychological warfare, particularly emphasizing Arab identity, lifestyle in England, development in the Arab World, and the solid Arab–Allies relationship. The results of this study demonstrate how photographs played an important role in the propaganda machine, which, in this case, was intended to positively impress Arabs and Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula and turn them against the Axis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the techno-typological study of seven bone projectile points closely associated with a burial assemblage excavated from El Alto 5 (~550 cal BP, Sierras of Córdoba, Argentina). The bone points provide a comparative model for interpreting the function of arrow points, primarily concerning how archaeologists can accurately differentiate the arrow tips used for warfare or hunting. Bone points have barbed shoulders to resist removal from the wound and serrated stems for secure hafting. They required shafts a few millimeters thicker than stone-tipped arrows for hafting, involving more kinetic energy to inflict severe injuries. Identifying a dark residue spattered over the blades opens the possibility that poison was applied to enhance the effectiveness of the shoot. The study is considered a starting point to build more accurate models to identify interpersonal violence during the Late Prehispanic Period, where most bone points occurred as domestic refuse of campsites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The main goal of this paper is to present and compare the main developments in the Russian wars in Ukraine and Syria by considering the main patterns, parallels, and changing trajectories that could shed more light onto both of these war zones, which are highly interlinked due to Russia's leading role in both. It analytically, comparatively, and contemplatively approaches those developments by highlighting multiple similarities and the main differences in global responses to these conflicts. Both conflicts should be seen as highly unpredictable, dynamic, and unnecessarily extended asymmetric proxy wars in which global powers test their new military doctrines and their competitors' responses to their unconventional actions and other unsolicited and indirect interferences in the local dynamism of both wars. Unlike in Syria, the Ukrainian war zone is wholly transformative and ready for the adoption of partial hybridization and the utilization of the new software-defined warfare in combination with conventional weapons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]