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The aim of the study is to address the issues and associated health risks due to consumption of high-fluoride water supplied for drinking in a rural part of Shanmuganadhi River basin, Tamil Nadu, India. In this study, 61 groundwater samples were gathered from various tube and open wells and analysed for fluoride and other physicochemical parameters. The abundance of cations is Na +  > Ca 2+  > Mg 2+  > K + , and that of anions is HCO 3 -  > SO 4 2-  > Cl -  > F - . The fluoride concentration in drinking groundwater varied from 0.10 to 3.3 mg/l. According to the WHO standards, about 26% of the samples were unfit for drinking requirements (16 out of 61 samples) Water quality index (WQI) method was adopted to categorize the water into different classes to understand its suitability for drinking requirements. WQI signified that nearly 52% of the samples denoted poor, very poor and not suitable categories, whereas 48% of samples denoted good and excellent categories for consumption. Health risks associated with high-fluoride drinking water were assessed for various age groups of inhabitants such as children, teens and adults. The hazard quotient estimated based on the oral intake ranged from 0.00E+00 to 5.50E+00, from 0.00E+00 to 4.22E+00 and from 0.00E+00 to 3.45E+00 for children, teens and adults, respectively. It suggested that the health risks are associated with 75%, 59% and 43% of samples, respectively, among children, teens and adults. Therefore, children are more inclined towards risk than teens and adults in this region based on the intake of fluoride-rich drinking water. To improve the present scenario, groundwater should be either treated before drinking water supply or must be artificially recharged to lower the concentration of ions.

The main aim of the present study was to examine the quality of the groundwater and decipher the sources of groundwater fluoride through mass balance modeling based on fluoride exposure in a geologically heterogeneous semi-arid region of southern India. This was achieved by hydrogeochemical analysis, graphical methods, and mass transfer modeling approaches. Fuzzy comprehensive technique was applied to evaluate the quality of groundwater for groundwater management. In this regard, 61 groundwater samples were obtained from open wells and bore wells and analyzed for different physicochemical parameters. The major cation and anion abundances follow the order Na +  > Ca 2+  > Mg 2+  > K + and Cl -  > HCO 3 -  > SO 4 2-  > NO 3 -  > PO 4 3- . About 88.4% and 34.4% of the total water samples were dominated with Na + and Cl - ions in this region, respectively. The fluoride level in groundwater ranged from 0.10 to 3.30 mg/l with a mean value of 1.04 mg/l. Nearly 25% of the groundwater samples collected from 15 villages showed fluoride concentrations exceeding the maximum permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l as per the World Health Organization recommendations for human intake. More than 85% of the samples fell under strong acid (Cl - and SO 4 2- ) type. The amount of groundwater salinization in this region was 70.5% since the Revelle index (RI) was excess in the groundwater samples (RI > 0.5 meq/l). Silicate weathering, cation exchange, and gypsum dissolution were the dominant geogenic processes in the aquifer system influencing groundwater chemistry and nullified the possibility of carbonate dissolution. Saturation indices revealed the contribution of sequestration of CaCO 3 in F - enrichment. Total dissolved solids showed strong positive correlations with Na + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cl - , SO 4 2- and NO 3- indicating the contribution of anthropogenic inputs to groundwater chemistry in addition to geogenic sources. The results of the fuzzy comprehensive method indicated that 33% of the groundwater samples fell under fair water type, 2% and 11% of the samples fell under poor and very poor quality water types, respectively. Therefore, this work will be helpful for the decision-makers to plan for the sustainable management of groundwater resources.

Problems arising from the accumulation of plastic waste in the environment have become global. Appeals to stop the usage of disposable drinking straws or plastic cutlery did not come out without reason - 320 million tons of plastic products are produced annually, of which 40% are disposable items. More and more countries and private enterprises are giving up these types of items in favor of their biodegradable substitutes, e.g., cardboard drinking straws. Plastic waste in the environment is subject to a number of physicochemical interactions and biodegradation in which bacteria are involved. By using synthetic waste, they reduce the size of plastic garbage while increasing its dispersion in the environment. Small plastic particles, invisible to the naked eye, are called nanoplastic. Nanoplastic is not inert to living organisms. Due to its size, it is taken up with food by animals and passed on in the trophic chain. The ability to penetrate the body's barriers through nanoplastic leads to the induction of biological effects with various outcomes. Research studies on the interaction of nanoplastic with living organisms are carried out in many laboratories; however, their number is still a drop in the ocean of the data needed to draw clear-cut conclusions about the impact of nanoplastic on living organisms. There is also no data on the direct exposure to nanoplastic contamination at workplaces, schools and public utilities, standards describing the acceptable concentration of nanoplastic in food products and drinking water, and in vitro tests on nanoparticles other than polystyrene nanoparticles. Complementing the existing data will allow assessing the risks arising from the exposure of organisms to nanoplastic. Med Pr. 2020;71(6):743-56., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

We aim to assess the risks of renal dysfunction and osteoporosis that is attributed to the seawater acidification caused cadmium (Cd) level increase in human consumed shellfish. A physiology-based pharmacokinetic model was used to estimate Cd concentrations in urine and blood among shellfish-only consumers and among the general population. We used the benchmark dose (BMD) method to determine the threshold limits of Cd in urine for renal dysfunction and in blood for osteoporosis for assessing the human health risk. Our results revealed that seawater acidification could increase the Cd accumulation in shellfish by 10-13% compared to the situations under current pH levels. Under the lower seawater pH level, the daily intake of Cd could increase by 21%-67% among shellfish-only consumers, and by 13%-17% among the general population. Our findings indicated that seawater acidification would lead to a marginal increase in Cd intake among humans in shellfish-only consumers. The results of BMDs of urinary Cd showed that the threshold limits for renal dysfunction at 5% were 3.00 μg g -1 in males and 12.35 μg g -1 in females. For osteoporosis, the estimated BMDs of blood Cd were 7.95 μg L -1 in males and 1.23 μg L -1 in females. These results of the risk of Cd intake showed that the consumption of Cd-contaminated shellfish in the general population is largely unaffected by changes in seawater pH levels. Notably, the potential impact of seawater acidification on renal dysfunction for males in shellfish-only consumers face a 14% increase of risk., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests related to the work performed in this study., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This study reports the use ofa natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) with hollow fiber-microporous membrane liquid-liquid microextraction (HF-MMLLE) for the multiclass determination of 11 compounds classified as emerging contaminantsin water. Different deep eutectic solvents were synthetized and Thymol: Camphor (1:1 molar fraction) wasused as extraction solvent. The Thymol:Camphor was impregnated into the polypropylene membrane porous for 10 min, replacing commonly used solvents (ex. hexane and octanol). The optimized parameters were obtained by multi and univariate models. Extractions were carried out for 50 min using 1.5 mL of water sample at pH 6 and without addition of salt while desorption was made in a mixture of acetone: methanol (3:1, v/v) for 15 min. Separation/quantification was conducted by HPLC with a diode array detection (DAD)and calibration curves were obtained for each analyte. Determination coefficients higher than 0.9906 and limits of detection ranged from 0.3 to 6.1 µg L -1 . Intraday precision (n = 3) ranged from 1.6 to 18.4% and inter day from 5.0 to 21.3%. Relative recoveries were performed in tap and stream water and ranged from 64 to 123%., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Heavy metal sediment quality standards (SQSs) derived from sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) are crucial in risk evaluation and environmental management. However, the establishment of SQSs is quite complex, especially for heavy metals. This study attempted to establish basin-scale SQSs for Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn based on SQGs combined with water quality standards in two coastal rivers in North China, named Jiaolai River (JL) and Jiahe River (JR), respectively. The spatial distribution, fraction, partition coefficients and environmental risk of heavy metals in sediments-porewater were investigated. The results showed that most heavy metals in sediments in JH were higher than those in JL, however, in the porewater, it exhibited an opposite trend. The geochemical fraction showed that most heavy metals in sediments were dominated by residual fraction. The partition of heavy metals between sediment and porewater were mainly affected by both sediment and porewater properties, and exogenous input of heavy metals. Contamination factors showed that Cd in sediment posed high pollution degree; the interstitial water criteria toxicity units and Nemerow Indexes suggested that heavy metal toxicities in porewater were low. The basin-scale heavy metal SQGs were calculated based on porewater quality derived from surface water quality standards using the modified equilibrium partitioning approach. The basin-scale heavy metal SQGs was classified with different grades to deduce the SQSs. Evaluated results of heavy metals in sediments based on SQSs showed lower potential bio-toxic effects in two rivers. In total, basin-scale SQGs for heavy metals were feasible for basin-scale SQSs establishment in coastal rivers., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they havno known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

At high concentrations, tungsten can be toxic to humans, animals, and the environment, though little is known about natural, aqueous tungsten in surface waters. To improve understanding and develop a model predicting tungsten concentrations, we collected water and sediment from 77 water bodies in 20 watersheds in Washington State, USA. We found aqueous tungsten concentrations spanning two orders of magnitude (10.3 ng L -1 - 2.05 μg L -1 ) with average tungsten concentrations in both water and sediments more than two-fold higher in watersheds with tungsten-bearing underlying rock types (average: 0.217 μg L -1 , 0.669 mg kg -1 ; range: 0.010-2.05 μg L -1 , 0.0713-4.691 mg kg -1 for surface waters and sediments, respectively) than in watersheds without such underlying geology (average: 0.068 μg L -1 , 0.352 mg kg -1 ; range: 0.010-0.211 μg L -1 , 0.0349-2.399 mg kg -1 for surface waters and sediments, respectively). Aqueous concentrations of tungsten significantly correlated with beryllium (Be) and copper (Cu) (R 2  = 0.31, 0.41, respectively) and a multiple linear regression model using Be and Cu explained 65% of the variance in measured aqueous tungsten concentrations. Applying this model to existing Be and Cu data from 19 sites across the Pacific Northwest resulted in predicted tungsten concentrations ranging from 0.116 to 0.458 μg L -1 . These predicted concentrations along with our measured concentrations indicate none of these sites were close to the drinking water standard for tungsten set by the former Soviet Union-the only country so far to set limits for tungsten in drinking water (50 μg L -1 )., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The reuse of treated municipal wastewater (herein referred to as reclaimed water) in agricultural irrigation (RWAI) as a means to alleviate water scarcity is gaining increasing policy attention, particularly in areas where water demand mitigation measures have proved insufficient. However, reclaimed water reuse in practice is lagging behind policy ambition, with <2.5% of it reused in a European context. A key barrier identified as limiting its full valorisation is concern over its impact on human and environmental health. To address this concern, and to meet further objectives including achieving parity between current reclaimed water reuse guidelines operational in various Member States, the European Commission has proposed a regulation which identifies minimum quality requirements (MQR) for a range of microbiological and physico-chemical parameters but the inclusion of compounds of emerging concern (CECs) in terms of the determination of quality standards (QS) is missing. This paper reviews the existing pertinent EU legislation in terms of identifying the need for CEC QS for RWAI, considering the scope and remit of on-going pan-European chemicals prioritisation schemes. It also evaluates opportunities to link in with the existing EQS derivation methodology under the EU WFD to address all protection targets in the environmental compartments exposed via potential pathways of RWAI. Finally, it identifies the main data gaps and research needs for terrestrial ecosystems, the removal efficiency of CECs by WWTPs and transformation products generated during the wastewater reuse cycle., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Small and brief exceedances of chemicals above their guideline values in drinking water are unlikely to cause an appreciable increased risk to human health. As a result, short-term exposure values (STEV) can be derived to help decide whether drinking water can still be supplied to consumers without adverse health risks. In this study, three approaches were applied to calculate and compare STEV for pesticides. The three approaches included basing a STEV on the acute reference dose (ARfD) (Approach 1), removing conventional attribution rates and uncertainty factors from current guideline values (Approach 2) and extrapolating 1 d and 7 d no observed adverse effect levels (NOAEL) from existing toxicity data using a log-linear regression (Approach 3). Despite being very different methods, the three approaches produced comparable STEV generally within an order of magnitude, which often overlapped with other existing short-term exposure values such as short-term no adverse response levels (SNARL) and health advisories (HA). The results show that adjusting the current guideline value using standard extrapolation factors (Approach 2) often produced the most conservative values. Approach 2 was then applied to two other chemical classes, disinfection by-products (DBPs) and cyanotoxins, demonstrating the wider applicability of the approach., (Crown Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Since the establishment of the whole-contact sediment toxicity test using Heterocypris incongruens in 2012, this user-friendly method has been widely used for the assessment of many kinds of solid samples, such as sediment, soil, compost, and sewage sludge. There are two endpoints for this method: mortality and growth inhibition. Currently, there is no standard toxicity threshold established for the endpoint of growth inhibition. However, there is evidence showing that the calcite saturation state of the overlying water, which might be different among various samples, influences the growth and survival of H. incongruens. Thus, it is necessary to characterize the influence of the calcite saturation state to ensure that the test results are reliable and comparable among different samples. In the present study, we created artificial sediments comprised of quartz sand and 0-20% calcite particulates to manipulate the calcite saturation state in the overlying water and performed the test using H. incongruens for 6 d. The results show that a low calcite saturation state inhibited the growth of H. incongruens but had no effect on survival rate. The growth of ostracods was linearly related to the calcite saturation index of the overlying water. Additionally, a formula for artificial sediment consisting of 10% calcite and 90% quartz sand for the H. incongruens toxicity test was proposed. This study helps to distinguish H. incongruens growth inhibition caused by calcite saturation from that caused by toxicity., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Groundwater quality investigations were carried out in one of the urban parts of south India for fluoride and nitrate contaminations, with special focus on human health risk assessment for the rapidly growing and increasingly industrialized Coimbatore City. Twenty-five groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters (EC, pH, TDS, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , Cl - , SO 4 2- , HCO 3 - , PO 4 3- , NO 3 - , and F - ) and the piper diagram characterized 60% of them as Ca-Mg-Cl type. Analysis of fluoride (0.1 to 2.4 mg/l) shows that 32% of the groundwater samples contain F - over the permissible limit, affecting a region of 122.10 km 2 . Nitrate (0.1 to 148 mg/l) is over the permissible limit in 44% of the groundwater samples spread over an area of 429.43 km 2 . The total hazard indices (THI) of non-carcinogenic risk for children (0.21 to 4.83), women (0.14 to 3.35), and men (0.12 to 2.90) shows some of the THI values are above the permissible limit of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The THI-based non-carcinogenic risks are 60%, 52%, and 48% for children, women, and men. This investigation suggests higher health risk for children and also recommends that proper management plan should be adopted to improve the drinking water quality in this region in order to avoid major health issues in the near future.

Phosphorus is one of the main causes of waterbodies in Scotland being at less than good ecological status (GES) in terms of the water framework directive (WFD). In Scotland, there are more than 8000 standing waters, defined as lakes and reservoirs that have a surface area of more than 0.5 km 2 . Only about 330 of these are monitored routinely to assess compliance with the WFD. The export coefficient tool PLUS+ (phosphorus land use and slope) has been developed to estimate total phosphorus (TP) concentrations in the unmonitored sites; modelled values are then compared to WFD target concentrations for high, good, moderate, poor, and bad status to assess compliance. These type-specific or site-specific targets are set by the regulatory authority and form part of a suite of physical, chemical, and ecological targets that are used to assess GES, all of which must be met. During development, the PLUS+ tool was applied to 323 monitored catchments and 7471 unmonitored catchments. The efficacy of the tool was assessed against TP concentrations observed in 2014 and found to perform well in the rural catchments. 51% of standing waters had the same modelled and observed WFD class (i.e., High, Good, Moderate, Poor, Bad), and a further 40% of standing waters had a modelled WFD class that was within one class of observed water quality. The tool performed less well in catchments with larger inputs of TP from urban sources (e.g., sewage). The greatest deviations between measured and modelled classes were explained by the shortage of information on wastewater treatment works, fish farms, migratory birds, levels of uncertainty in TP measurements, and the amount of in-lake re-cycling of P. The limitations of the tool are assessed using data from six well documented case study sites and recommendations for improving the model performance are proposed., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

In this study, we propose a new approach to estimate geochemical local baselines and enrichment factor values for metals in riverine sediments. The goal is to describe catchment areas characterized by intensive and spread anthropogenic activities, for which it is challenging to identify undisturbed sites to utilize as reference. The case study is the Nestore river basin (Central Italy). Our approach is based on the use of ecological quality as a criterion to select the reference points in the normalization processes of metal baselines. The rationale is to assume that the sediments with a better environmental quality are anthropogenically least impaired. On these grounds, we detected geochemical local baselines and enrichment factor values of various metals (Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, Sr, and Zn). Also, this approach allowed highlighting a major level of pollution for the most downstream site of Nestore river and its left tributaries.

The quality of drinking water source remains as a major concern in areas of developing and underdeveloped countries worldwide. The treatment and supply of drinking water in Rwanda are carried out by Water and Sanitation Corporation, a state-owned public company. However, it is not able to supply water to all households. Consequently, the non-serviced households depend on natural water sources, like springs, to meet their water requirements. Nevertheless, the water quality in these springs is scarcely known. Therefore, this study assessed and compared metal elements in drinking water sources in the dry and rainy seasons in 2017 using the contamination degree, metal index, and geographic information systems to reveal the spatial distribution of water quality within the considered water sources of springs in Rwanda. The samples were collected monthly from nine water sources of springs and the measured elements are aluminium, calcium, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc. The metal index indicated that during the dry season and rainy season, the sites of Kibungo (1.10 and 1.26) and Kinigi (1.01 and 1.54) have assessed a metal index which is higher than 1. Thus, the water quality of those sites was getting the threshold of warning. The analysis indicated that pollutants are easily transported into water bodies during the rainy season in urban and rural areas to a greater extent than during the dry season .

For reliable mussel monitoring programmes based on biomarkers, regionally relevant reference values and their natural variability need to be known. The Baltic Sea exhibits high inter-regional and seasonal variability in physical factors such as salinity, temperature and primary production. The aim of this pilot study is to depict the effects of season-related environmental factors in a selected battery of biomarkers in two environmentally different subregions of the Baltic Sea to help establishing reference data for biochemical, cellular and tissue-level biomarkers. In order to achieve that, mussels were collected from reference sites in Kiel (Germany) and Tvärminne (Finland) during three seasons: summer and autumn 2016, and spring 2017. Finally, in order to characterize the ecological situation, analysis of the chemical tissue burden was performed and chlorophyll‑a and particulate organic carbon concentration and temperature changes were analyzed at each sampling locality using satellite remote sensing images. An integrated biomarker response index was performed to summarize the biomarker responses of each locality and season. The biochemical endpoints showed seasonal variability regulated by temperature, food supply and reproductive cycle, while among the cellular endpoints only lipofuscin accumulation and lysosomal structural changes showed slight seasonal variation. Seasonal changes in tissue level biomarkers were observed only at the northern Baltic Sea site Tvärminne, dictated by the demanding energetic trade-off caused by reproduction. In conclusion, the characterization of the ecological variables and physico-chemical conditions at each site, is crucial to perform a reliable assessment of the effects of a hypothetical pollution scenario in the Baltic Sea. Moreover, reference levels of biomarkers and their responses to natural environmental conditions must be established., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In recent years, increasing eutrophication in large freshwater lakes, which are an important drinking water source for cities in China, have been resulted in substantial cyanobacteria blooms that could cause serious taste and odor (T&O) problems. In this investigation, three typical lakes (Songhua Lake, Chaohu Lake and Taihu Lake) as drinking water sources located in different geographical areas in China, were selected to study the problems of cyanobacteria-derived T&O (i.e., 2-methylisobornoel, geosmin, β-ionone, 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine, and 2-methylbenzofuran). The occurrence of T&O in target lakes was compared across various nutrition states and geographic locations, to get more information for early warning for algal bloom and T&O occurrence, being useful lake water management and purification. Results show that the occurrence of T&O in Songhua Lake was the poorest for the lowest nutrient state, as a first report in T&O research field in China. This is a lake located in Northeast China at high latitude, with lower water temperatures. The occurrence of T&O in Chaohu Lake was ranked in the middle. That in Taihu Lake was the most intensive. Finally, the relationship between water quality, T&O and its origin was analyzed by multivariate statistical methods (correlation analysis, principal component, and cluster analyses)., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Water treatments that provide efficient removal of organic and inorganic disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors across variable natural organic matter (NOM) sources are desirable. Treatments that effectively remove inorganic DBP precursors such as bromide, which significantly shift the speciation of DBP formation towards more toxic DBPs, are of particular interest and have been less investigated. This study characterised NOM isolated from three major drinking water sources in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia, and compared it to the International Humic Substances Society (IHSS) Suwannee River NOM isolate (SR) in terms of DBP precursor removal treatments and DBP formation. Each NOM isolate was used to make synthetic water samples with otherwise identical water quality parameters, that were treated with enhanced coagulation (EC) or EC followed by; anion exchange (MIEX® resin), powdered activated carbon (PAC), granular activated carbon (GAC) or silver impregnated activated carbon (SIAC), to investigate the removal of DBP precursors (bromide and DOC), minimisation of DBPs, as well as the change in specific chlorine demand. EC/SIAC treatment was the most effective method of DBP control studied, due to the efficient simultaneous NOM and bromide adsorption of the SIAC (99 ± 1% bromide removal regardless of NOM source). This treatment also resulted in >92% removal of each of the measured DBPs across all NOM sources, with the exception of DBAN and 1,1-DCP, which achieved >80% removal across all NOM sources. Increases in tribromomethane (TBM) and dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN) formation were observed after all other treatment/NOM-isolate combinations, due to increased Br:DOC ratio after treatment, whereas chlorinated DBPs were generally well-controlled by all treatment/NOM-isolate combinations. Differences in reactivity of the individual NOM isolates were found to be related to both the origin of the isolate and the treatment employed, however, bromide removal capacity for each treatment was independent of NOM source., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The polycyclic musk galaxolide (HHCB) is widely used as fragrances in personal care products (PCPs) and has been detected in various environmental media. There is an urgent need to derive aquatic life criteria (ALC) of HHCB for the protection of aquatic organisms. Toxicity tests with 8 Chinese resident aquatic organisms from 3 phyla and 8 families were conducted, and three methods were used for deriving the ALC. A criterion maximum concentration (CMC) of 8.33 μg/L and a criterion continuous concentration (CCC) of 2.20 μg/L were derived according to the USEPA guidelines. The acute predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) values derived by log-normal species sensitivity distribution (SSD) and log-logistic SSD method were 77.41 and 66.47 μg/L, respectively. In addition, a significant sensitivity difference was observed between the planktonic crustacean and benthic crustacean, and there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) among SSDs based on resident and non-resident species. A comparison of chronic SSDs between HHCB, tonalide (AHTN) and musk ketone (MK) showed that nitro musk (MK) was more toxic to aquatic organisms than polycyclic musks (HHCB and AHTN). Finally, an assessment of risk to aquatic organisms in surface waters and effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) worldwide showed that potential risk may exist at several locations. HHCB concentrations in 4.08 and 46.17% of the WWTP effluents in China and 1.71 and 16.13% of the WWTP effluents in other countries exceed the hazard concentration for 5% and 1% aquatic species., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

There are many thousands of chemicals in use for a wide range of purposes, and highly efficient analytical methods are required to monitor them for protection of the environment. In order to cope with this difficult task we developed a novel, comprehensive method for 484 substances in water samples. In this method target chemicals were extracted by tandem SPE and then determined by LC-QTOF-MS-SWATH. Targets were unambiguously identified using retention times, accurate masses of a precursor and two product ions, their ion ratios, and accurate MS/MS spectrum. Quantitation was achieved by the internal standard method using a precursor ion. Results of recovery tests at two concentrations (50 and 500 ng L -1 ) showed average recoveries of 87.5% and 87.0% (RSD, 9.1% and 9.4%), respectively. Limits of detection of one-half of the targets were below 1.0 ng L -1 . The method was applied to the influent and effluent of a sewage treatment plant, and around 100 chemicals were detected. Results of examination on matrix effects using their extracts spiked with 209 pesticides showed that the ratios of detected amounts between the extracts and the standard solution were 89.8% (influent) and 91.7% (effluent), respectively. In addition, investigation on the stability of calibration curves by injecting the same standards for 1 year showed that their quantitative results did not change; average accuracy was 103.3% (RSD, 10.0%), indicating that the calibration curves can be used for an extended period of time without calibration, and quantitative retrospective analysis can be done after creating calibration curves for new targets.

Bivalves are extensively employed as biomonitors of coastal pollution, but the comparability among different species and geographic environments needs to be further scrutinized. The present study conducted a meta-analysis of trace metals (Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ti, and Zn) in the soft tissues of three groups of marine bivalves (oysters, mussels, and clams) collected from China and worldwide. By conducting cumulative frequency distribution analysis of metal distribution, we modeled the 5% cumulative values as the bio-baseline metal concentrations in these bivalves. We further modeled their potential baseline concentrations using a well-developed biokinetic model. The baseline concentrations of Cd, Cu, and Zn in the tissue-specific Environmental Quality Standards (EQSs) for China were 0.99, 34.5, and 340 μg/g dw in oysters, 0.38, 4.32, and 49.6 μg/g dw in mussels, and 0.35, 3.02, 51.4 μg/g dw in clams, respectively. Of the 8 metals examined in this study, the calculated baseline concentrations of Ag, Cr, Cd, Cu and Zn in the oysters were 3.7-48, 2.7-3.6, 2.6-2.8, 8.0-11.4, 6.6-6.8 times higher than those in the mussels and clams, and only Ti showed comparable baseline concentrations among the three bivalves (8.43-9.67 μg/g dw). These data strongly suggested the inter-group as well as inter-metal difference in the baseline metal concentrations in marine bivalves. Further, the potential baseline concentrations of Cd and Cu predicted by the biokinetic model were comparable to those modeled by the probability frequency distribution. Combined statistical frequency analysis and biokinetic modeling therefore provided an innovative method to establish the baseline metal concentrations in bivalves and the tissue-specific EQSs, which are now urgently needed for coastal management, biomonitoring, and geochemical records in the world., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: There is scarcity of information about the quality and safety of drinking water in Africa. Without such vital information, sustainable development goal number 6 which promotes availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation remains elusive especially in developing countries. The study aimed at determining concentrations of inorganic compounds, estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), and identify safe drinking water source sources in Southwestern Uganda., Methods: This was an observational study in which 40 drinking water samples were collected from georeferenced boreholes, springs, open wells, bottled, and taps within Bushenyi district of Southwestern Uganda. Water samples were analyzed for copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) levels using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Water safety measures (EDI, HI, and ILCR) were established for each water source and compared with local and international water permissible standards for each analyte. A spatial map was drawn using qGIS®, and analysis of quantitative data was done using MS Excel 2013 at 95% significance., Results: Heavy metals were present in the following order: 11.276 ppm > 4.4623 ppm > 0.81 ppm > 0.612 ppm > 0.161 ppm for Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd, respectively, while Cr was not detected. Fe was the primary water heavy metal in the order of open well > borehole > tap > spring > bottled water. This was followed by Zn levels in the order of tap > bottled > spring > borehole > open well. All compounds were within international water safety standards except Pb. Hence, there is need for the government of Uganda to establish water filtration systems, particularly for Pb to improve the quality of water for the general public. The EDI was similar ( P > 0.05) for water consumed from spring, bottled, and tap sources for Fe and Zn levels. Similarly, no differences were found in the EDI for children and adults ( P > 0.05). Furthermore, the HI showed an absence of noncarcinogenic risk associated (HI < 1), although the ILCR was higher in adults than children ( P < 0.05) due to high Cd concentrations., Conclusion: The current identified Fe is a major heavy metal in drinking water of Uganda, and boreholes were the major safest sources of drinking water identified in this study.

Communities across the U.S. are discovering drinking water contaminated by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and determining appropriate actions. There are currently no federal PFAS drinking water standards despite widespread drinking water contamination, ubiquitous population-level exposure, and toxicological and epidemiological evidence of adverse health effects. Absent federal PFAS standards, multiple U.S. states have developed their own health-based water guideline levels to guide decisions about contaminated site cleanup and drinking water surveillance and treatment. We examined perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) water guideline levels developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies to protect people drinking the water, and summarized how and why these levels differ. We referenced documents and tables released in June 2018 by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) to identify states that have drinking water and groundwater guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS that differ from EPA's health advisories (HAs). We also gathered assessment documents from state websites and contacted state environmental and health agencies to identify and confirm current guidelines. Seven states have developed their own water guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS ranging from 13 to 1000 ng/L, compared to EPA's HA of 70 ng/L for both compounds individually or combined. We find that the development of PFAS guideline levels via exposure and hazard assessment decisions is influenced by multiple scientific, technical, and social factors, including managing scientific uncertainty, technical decisions and capacity, and social, political, and economic influences from involved stakeholders. Assessments by multiple states and academic scientists suggest that EPA's HA is not sufficiently protective. The ability of states to develop their own guideline levels and standards provides diverse risk assessment approaches as models for other state and federal regulators, while a sufficiently protective, scientifically sound, and enforceable federal standard would provide more consistent protection.

The aim of the present study is to investigate water quality and potential trace metal contaminations in the Northeastern part of Cambodia. Tube well (n = 35), hand-dug well (n = 18), channel (n = 10) and lake/pond (n = 8) water samples were randomly collected from Mondolkiri province which is located in the Northeastern highland of Cambodia. A water sample was collected in two different bottles. One was filled in 30-mL polyethylene bottle after which was acidified to pH < 2 with concentrated HNO 3 . Another was filled in 250-mL polyethylene bottle. The collected water sampled was stored in a cooler during fieldwork and transferred to a fridge where they are stored at 4 °C for analysis. The measurement of pH, ORP, dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity was taken at laboratory following standard procedures. All chemical measurement of trace metals were taken by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Analytical results reveal that tube well (47.1%), hand-dug well (77.8%) and channel water (20%) have pH < 6.5. Turbidity of tube well (32.4%), hand-dug well (5.6%), lake water (12.5%) and all channel water samples are exceeded Cambodia regulation of 5 NTU. Mean As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn concentrations in Mondolkiri's water sources are below Cambodian drinking water quality standard and WHO's drinking water quality guideline. However, the upper range of Pb in tube well and channel water and Zn in tube well are exceeding Cambodia regulation. Concurrently, the mean concentrations of Fe and Mn in tube well and channel water are exceeded Cambodian aesthetic guideline of 300 µg L -1 and 100 µg L -1 , respectively. This study suggests that appropriate treatment technologies are necessary for residents in the Mondolkiri province to access to clean water and minimize their potential health risks.

Background: Low-income and minority communities often face disproportionately high pollutant exposures. The lead crisis in Flint, Michigan, has sparked concern about broader socioeconomic disparities in exposures to drinking water contaminants. Nitrate is commonly found in drinking water, especially in agricultural regions, and epidemiological evidence suggests elevated risk of cancer and birth defects at levels below U.S. EPA's drinking water standard (10 mg/L NO 3 -N). However, there have been no nationwide assessments of socioeconomic disparities in exposures to nitrate or other contaminants in U.S. drinking water. The goals of this study are to identify determinants of nitrate concentrations in U.S. community water systems (CWSs) and to evaluate disparities related to wealth or race/ethnicity., Methods: We compiled nitrate data from 39,466 U.S. CWSs for 2010-2014. We used EPA's Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) to compile CWS characteristics and linked this information with both city- and county-level demographic data gathered from the U.S. Census Bureau. After applying multiple imputation methods to address censored nitrate concentration data, we conducted mixed-effects multivariable regression analyses at national and regional scales., Results: 5.6 million Americans are served by a CWS that had an average nitrate concentration ≥ 5 mg/L NO 3 -N between 2010 and 2014. Extent of agricultural land use and reliance on groundwater sources were significantly associated with nitrate. The percent of Hispanic residents served by each system was significantly associated with nitrate even after accounting for county-level cropland and livestock production, and CWSs in the top quartile of percent Hispanic residents exceeded 5 mg/L nearly three times as often as CWSs serving the lowest quartile. By contrast, the percent of residents living in poverty and percent African American residents were both inversely associated with nitrate., Conclusions: Epidemiological evidence for health effects associated with drinking water above 5 mg/L NO 3 -N raises concerns about increased risk for the 5.6 million Americans served by public water supplies with average nitrate concentrations above this level. The associations we observed between nitrate concentrations and proportions of Hispanic residents support the need for improved efforts to assist vulnerable communities in addressing contamination and protecting source waters. Future studies can extend our methods to evaluate disparities in exposures to other contaminants and links to health effects.

Fish samples of different species (i.e. rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss), barbel (Barbus barbus) and European chub (Squalius cephalus)) were collected from the Sava River Basin for a preliminary investigation of the levels of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDEs and PFAS as a whole. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs, in terms of pg WHO-TEQ/g ww, were below the maximum limit established at the Commission Regulation (EU) No 1259/2011. On the contrary, when DL-PCBs were also included, levels increase up to 11.7 pg WHO-TEQ PCDD/Fs+DL-PCBs /g ww in a particular case, with two samples out of a total of ten exceeding the maximum set at this EU Regulation and the EQS established at the European Directive regarding priority substances in the field of water policy (0.0065 ng WHO-TEQ PCDD/Fs+DL-PCBs /g ww). A similar trend was also observed for NDL-PCBs, whit the same two samples, from the lower stretch of the river basin, exceeding the maximum limit allowed at the EU Regulation (125 ng/g ww). For PBDEs, levels found in all the samples exceeded the EQS (0.0085 ng/g ww) up to more than a thousand times and 40% of the samples presented PFOS values above the EQS. Data from this study were compared to values reported at the literature for fish from other geographical areas., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Sediment is the most commonly identified pollutant associated with macroinvertebrate community impairments in freshwater streams nationwide. Management of this physical stressor is complicated by the multiple measures of sediment available (e.g., suspended, dissolved, bedded) and the variability in natural "healthy" sediment loadings across ecoregions. Here we examine the relative importance of 9 sediment parameters on macroinvertebrate community health as measured by the Virginia Stream Condition Index (VSCI) across 5 ecoregions. In combination, sediment parameters explained 27.4% of variance in the VSCI in a multiregion data set and from 20.2% to 76.4% of variance for individual ecoregions. Bedded sediment parameters had a stronger influence on VSCI than did dissolved or suspended parameters in the multiregion assessment. However, assessments of individual ecoregions revealed conductivity had a key influence on VSCI in the Central Appalachian, Northern Piedmont and Piedmont ecoregions. In no case was a single sediment parameter sufficient to predict VSCI scores or individual biological metrics. Given the identification of embeddedness and conductivity as key parameters for predicting biological condition, we developed family-level sensitivity thresholds for these parameters, based on extirpation. Resulting thresholds for embeddedness were 68% for combined ecoregions, 65% for the Mountain bioregion (composed of Central Appalachian, Ridge and Valley, and Blue Ridge ecoregions), and 88% for the Piedmont bioregion (composed of Northern Piedmont and Piedmont ecoregions). Thresholds for conductivity were 366 μS/cm for combined ecoregions, 391 μS/cm for the Mountain bioregion, and 136 μS/cm for the Piedmont bioregion. These thresholds may help water quality professionals identify impaired and at-risk waters designated to support aquatic life and develop regional strategies to manage sediment-impaired streams. Inclusion of embeddedness as a restoration endpoint may be warranted; this could be facilitated by application of more quantitative, less time-intensive measurement approaches. We encourage refinement of thresholds as additional data and genus-based metrics become available. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2019;15:77-92. Published 2018. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA., (Published 2018. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.)

This manuscript presents a comprehensive analytical framework for identification and quantification of chemically diverse endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) used in personal care and consumer products in diverse solid and liquid environmental matrices with an ultimate goal of evaluating public exposure to EDCs via water fingerprinting. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) was used for targeted analysis of selected EDCs as well as to identify and quantify a few metabolites using post-acquisition data mining. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) was applied to liquid matrices in order to reduce matrix effects and provide required sample concentration and ultimately, high sensitivity and selectivity of measurements. SPE recoveries in liquid samples ranged from 49 to 140% with method quantification limits not exceeding 1 ng L -1 for the majority of EDCs. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was applied to solid samples and when followed by SPE, it permitted the analysis of EDCs in digested sludge. MAE/SPE recoveries varied from 11 to 186% and MQLs between 0.03 and 8.1 ng g -1 with the majority of compounds showing MQLs below 2 ng g -1 . Mass error for quantifier and qualifier ions was below 5 ppm when analysing river water and effluent wastewater and below 10 ppm when analysing influent wastewater and solid samples. The method was successfully applied to environmental samples, with 33 EDCs identified and quantified in wastewater and receiving waters. In addition, several EDCs were found in digested sludge, which confirms that for a more comprehensive understanding of exposure patterns and environmental impact, analysis of solids cannot be neglected. Finally, post-acquisition data mining permitted the identification and quantification of a metabolite of BPA and the identification of a metabolite of 4-Cl-3-methylphenol. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

This study aimed to characterize metal contaminant concentrations and assess temporal and spatial variability in the main drinking water sources of Cap-Haïtien, Haiti. Water sources from five communities were sampled in two seasons, June (2014) and October (2014), and analysed for a suite of metals. A geographic information system was used to examine the spatial distribution of sampling points. Metal concentrations were below the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) primary drinking water standards. Mean manganese concentrations were comparatively higher in wells (254.5 µg/L), exceeding the USEPA secondary drinking water standard (50 µg/L). Higher mean Mg/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios (range 2.3-3.4) may indicate different interactions between seawater and groundwater throughout the year. Although metal concentrations were within the limits of the USEPA drinking water standards, emerging contaminants, such as manganese, showed concentrations in excess of recommended limits. These metals may interact with background nutritional status with potential implications for growth and development.

Pesticide residues in groundwater, mainly transported from contaminated soil, may threaten drinking water sources and cause adverse health effects. Therefore, pesticide groundwater standards were implemented by international environmental agencies to ensure the quality of groundwater, which serves as the direct drinking water source in many countries. However, regulatory inconsistencies are always found among groundwater, soil, drinking water, and even health standards due to the lack of communication among the regulatory processes. This study first developed a health-based regulatory chain framework to analyze pesticide groundwater regulations integrating soil, drinking water, and health regulations. Six regulatory indexes associated with probabilistic risk assessments and pesticide transport modeling were constructed to evaluate the performance of pesticide groundwater regulations identified from 56 countries. Worldwide pesticide groundwater regulations were analyzed by quantifying the impact on the downstream (exposure pathways in general) pesticide drinking water standards and human health and the influence from upstream (environmental pathways in general) soil regulations. The results indicated that in general, worldwide pesticide soil regulations do not encompass a sufficient number of pesticides or provide appropriate standard values to be compatible with groundwater regulations. The computed indexes between pesticide groundwater and drinking water regulations indicated more positive results than soil regulations because most European nations have groundwater regulations that are compatible with those of drinking water. However, most pesticide groundwater regulations could not protect human health according to the health-based indexes. Hopefully, the regulatory framework developed in this study will help environmental agencies comprehensively evaluate and establish pesticide groundwater regulations., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Sulfate (SO 4 2- ) is a ubiquitous anion in natural waters. It is not considered toxic, but it may be detrimental to freshwater species at elevated concentrations. Mining activities are one significant source of anthropogenic sulfate into natural waters, mainly due to the exposure of sulfide mineral ores to weathering. There are several strategies for mitigating sulfate release, starting from preventing sulfate formation in the first place and ending at several end-of-pipe treatment options. Currently, the most widely used sulfate-removal process is precipitation as gypsum (CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O). However, the lowest reachable concentration is theoretically 1500 mg L -1 SO 4 2- due to gypsum's solubility. At the same time, several mines worldwide have significantly more stringent sulfate discharge limits. The purpose of this review is to examine the process options to reach low sulfate levels (< 1500 mg L -1 ) in mine effluents. Examples of such processes include alternative chemical precipitation methods, membrane technology, biological treatment, ion exchange, and adsorption. In addition, aqueous chemistry and current effluent standards concerning sulfate together with concentrate treatment and sulfur recovery are discussed., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Until 2012, the European Directive 98/83/EC and the Italian Legislative Decree 31/2001 allowed derogation from the drinking water quality standards in Italy with a number of requests higher than any other European country. The present work aims to assess the extent of the derogation granted in Italy, in particular by noting those issued from 2001 to 2012, in order to obtain a retrospective quality indicator, useful for evaluating the risk arising from population exposure., Methods: The most significant factors leading to derogation were analyzed. We first carried out an in-depth analysis of the European, national and regional legislation and subsequently distributed the obtained data according to: parameters regarding derogation; length of the derogation; area involved; and maximum parameter value granted by the derogation acts., Results: We found approximately 100 derogation acts, granted in 14 Regions and concerning 19, mostly chemical, parameters. The most frequently granted derogation, in 12 Regions, was due to the presence of arsenic. Furthermore, given its 10-year presence in Campania and Lazio, fluoride was the most widespread parameter in the Italian territory. The year 2006 had the largest number of derogations issued with 22 acts found: this decreased to one during the third three-year derogation granted in 2012., Conclusions: Data collected showed how often Italy applied for drinking water quality derogation in recent years, going so far as to request a third three-year derogation. While this phenomenon has highlighted a practice largely ignored by the public, derogation acts have often involved the same parameters, underlining how difficult it can be to comply with the standards in a timely manner.

In 2007, the Biotic Ligand Model (BLM) became the basis for the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) freshwater water quality criteria (WQC) for Cu. Applying the BLM typically results in time-variable WQC, which are not unique to the BLM; they result from any criteria approach that depends on water chemistry (e.g., ammonia criteria or hardness-based equations for metals). However, widespread use of the BLM has renewed interest in developing an approach that considers variability when setting permit limits or benchmarks. To aid in establishing these benchmarks, we developed a fixed monitoring benchmark (FMB) approach: a probability-based method that incorporates time variability in BLM-predicted instantaneous water quality criteria (IWQC) and instream Cu concentrations. The FMB approach provides benchmarks that can be used to simplify implementation of time-variable WQC. Although it appears reasonable to apply this approach to derive a site-specific regulatory limit, the FMB does not technically represent a limit above which aquatic effects are expected. Rather, it represents a fixed concentration intended to yield the same level of protection as time-variable IWQC, which rely upon toxic unit (TU) distribution; each TU is calculated for a single sample using the Cu concentration and IWQC for this sample. The distribution of TUs for a particular site is used to estimate the probability that instream Cu concentrations are below associated IWQC. Our results suggest that Cu variability and corresponding IWQC, and their degree of correlation, indicate the magnitude of the FMB relative to the IWQC distribution. The FMB approach determines a maximum Cu distribution such that the resulting WQC exceedance frequency is consistent with the level of protection that is intended for the applicable water quality standard (WQS). This approach makes use of time-variable BLM-based WQC in regulatory contexts wherein a single benchmark is consistent with past practices and established implementation methods. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:722-735. © 2018 SETAC., (© 2018 SETAC.)

Triphenyltin (TPT) is one of the most toxic chemicals artificially discharged into aquatic environment with human activities. Due to its intensive use in antifouling paints and adverse effects on non-target species, TPT has aroused wide concern in both saltwater and freshwater environment. Nevertheless, the water quality criteria (WQC) are not available in China, which impedes the risk assessment for this emerging pollutant. This study aims to establish the WQC of TPT for both freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. With the derived WQC, a four-level tiered ecological risk assessment (ERA) approach was employed to assess the ecological risks of this emerging pollutant in Chinese waters. Through the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) methodology, the freshwater criterion maximum concentration (CMC) and criterion continuous concentration (CCC) were derived as 396 ng Sn L -1 and 5.60 ng Sn L -1 , respectively, whereas the saltwater CMC and CCC were 66.5 ng Sn L -1 and 4.11 ng Sn L -1 , respectively. The ecological risk assessment for TPT demonstrated that the acute risk was negligible whereas the chronic risk was significant with HQ (Hazard Quotient) values of up to 5.669 and 57.1% of coastal waters in China facing clear risk. TPT contamination in coastal environment, therefore, warrants further concern., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Disinfection is an integral component of water treatment performed daily on large volumes of water worldwide. Chemical disinfection may result in the unintended production of disinfectant by-products (DBPs) due to reactions between disinfectants and natural organic matter present in the source water. Due to their potential toxicity, levels of DBPs have been strictly regulated in drinking waters for many years. With water reuse now becoming more common around the world DBPs are increasingly becoming a concern in recycled waters, where a much larger amount and variety of compounds may be formed due to a higher abundance and diversity of organic material in the source waters. Regulation of DBPs in recycled waters is limited; generally, drinking water regulations are applied in place of specific guidelines for recycled waters. Such regulations are set for only 11, commonly observed, compounds of the 600+ that may, potentially, be found. In this review an overview of current research in this area is provided, the types of compounds that have been observed, methods for their analysis and possible regulation are also discussed. Through this review it is evident that there is a knowledge gap for the occurrence of DBPs in recycled waters, especially when comparing this information to that available for drinking waters. The concentrations of DBPs observed in recycled waters are seen to be higher than those in drinking water, though still within potable threshold limits. It is clear that there is a need for the analysis and understanding of a larger suite of compounds in recycled waters, as these will most likely be the source of future, global renewable water., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Whole organism to tissue concentration ratios (CR wo-tissue ) were derived for six wildlife groups (freshwater birds, freshwater bivalves, freshwater fishes, freshwater reptiles, freshwater vascular plants and terrestrial mammals). The wildlife groups and data represented species common to tropical northern Australia. Values of CR wo-tissue were derived for between 6 and 34 elements, depending upon wildlife group. The values were generally similar to international reference values. However, differences for some element-tissue combinations could affect radiation dose estimates for wildlife in certain environmental exposure situations, including uranium mining, where these data are intended to be applied., (Crown Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Environmental effects monitoring (EEM) has been traditionally used to evaluate the effects of existing facilities discharging liquid effluents into natural receiving waters in Canada. EEM also has the potential to provide feedback to an ongoing project in an adaptive management context and can inform the design of future projects. EEM, consequently, can and should also be used to test the predictions of effects related to new projects. Despite EEM's potential for widespread applicability, challenges related to the effective implementation of EEM include the use of appropriate study designs and the adoption of tiers for increasing or decreasing monitoring intensity. Herein we describe a template for designing and implementing a 6-tiered EEM program that utilizes information from the project-planning and predevelopment baseline data collection stages to build on forecasts from the initial environmental impact assessment project-design stage and that feeds into an adaptive management process. Movement between the 6 EEM tiers is based on the exceedance of baseline monitoring triggers, forecast triggers, and management triggers at various stages in the EEM process. To distinguish these types of triggers, we review the historical development of numeric and narrative triggers as applied to chemical (water and sediment) and biological (plankton, benthos, fish) endpoints. We also provide an overview of historical study design issues and discuss how the 6 EEM tiers and associated triggers influence the temporal-spatial experimental design options and how the information gained through EEM could be used in an adaptive management context. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:552-566. © 2018 SETAC., (© 2018 SETAC.)

Toxicological risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in (sources of) drinking water is required to identify potential health risks and prioritize chemicals for abatement or monitoring. In such assessments, concentrations of chemicals in drinking water or sources are compared to either (i) health-based (statutory) drinking water guideline values, (ii) provisional guideline values based on recent toxicity data in absence of drinking water guidelines, or (iii) generic drinking water target values in absence of toxicity data. Here, we performed a toxicological risk assessment for 163 CEC that were selected as relevant for drinking water. This relevance was based on their presence in drinking water and/or groundwater and surface water sources in downstream parts of the Rhine and Meuse, in combination with concentration levels and physicochemical properties. Statutory and provisional drinking water guideline values could be derived from publically available toxicological information for 142 of the CEC. Based on measured concentrations it was concluded that the majority of substances do not occur in concentrations which individually pose an appreciable human health risk. A health concern could however not be excluded for vinylchloride, trichloroethene, bromodichloromethane, aniline, phenol, 2-chlorobenzenamine, mevinphos, 1,4-dioxane, and nitrolotriacetic acid. For part of the selected substances, toxicological risk assessment for drinking water could not be performed since either toxicity data (hazard) or drinking water concentrations (exposure) were lacking. In absence of toxicity data, the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach can be applied for screening level risk assessment. The toxicological information on the selected substances was used to evaluate whether drinking water target values based on existing TTC levels are sufficiently protective for drinking water relevant CEC. Generic drinking water target levels of 37 μg/L for Cramer class I substances and 4 μg/L for Cramer class III substances in drinking water were derived based on these CEC. These levels are in line with previously reported generic drinking water target levels based on original TTC values and are shown to be protective for health effects of the majority of contaminants of emerging concern evaluated in the present study. Since the human health impact of many chemicals appearing in the water cycle has been studied insufficiently, generic drinking water target levels are useful for early warning and prioritization of CEC with unknown toxicity in drinking water and its sources for future monitoring., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Rainwater is consumed for drinking water in many parts of Australia, either preferentially over municipal water or in regional or remote areas, because rainwater is the primary source of water. Previous rainwater studies in other areas in Australia have shown the levels of some metals to be above the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG). This study assessed the level of metals in rainwater harvested in the Adelaide region. Water samples were collected from 53 tanks from three different sampling corridors. A total of 365 water samples were analysed for lead, zinc, copper, and cadmium using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In 47 out of the 53 tanks, lead was above the ADWG of 0.01 ppm in at least one sample (with 180/365 samples above 0.01 ppm). Zinc was above the ADWG (3.0 ppm) in 53/365 samples, copper was above the ADWG (2.0 ppm) in eight samples out of 365 samples, and cadmium was above the ADWG (0.002 ppm) in 19 samples out of 365 samples. These data are consistent with other studies of rainwater quality in Australia. Comparisons of levels of metals and volume of rainfall in the sampling and preceding month, roof material, and tank material, the presence of a first-flush device, sampling corridor, and sample pH showed that the roof material was related to higher levels of metals. There was a significant relationship between sampling corridors and the levels of lead and zinc. Nine of the tanks surveyed had filters installed. There was a small, but statistically significant, decrease in the levels of metals that passed through a filter prior to collection but, in those samples, filters did not remove metals to below guideline concentrations. An estimate of exposure, and a brief discussion of health risks as a result of exposure to metals, is presented.

Manganese is a natural contaminant of water sources. It is an essential oligo-element, which may exert toxicity at high doses, particularly via inhalation. Its toxicity by the oral route is less known, but epidemiological and experimental studies tend to support its neurodevelopmental toxicity in infants and children. This paper describes the method used by a middle-size public health institution to derive a Drinking Water Guideline (DWG) for manganese. After reviewing the work done by major public health institutions, authors confirmed the use of experimental data to derive a point-of-departure (POD) of 25 mg of manganese/kg/day, based on neurodevelopmental effects on pup rats. Then, a total uncertainty factor of 450 was applied to calculate a Toxicological Reference Value (TRV) of 55 &micro;g/kg/day. The final DWG proposed for manganese is 60 &micro;g/L and is based on a relative source contribution (RSC) of water of 20% and an infant drinking scenario of 182 mL/kg of body weight (BW) of water (95th percentile of the ingestion rate distribution for 0⁻6 months). Despite its limitations, e.g., starting with the work done by other agencies, such an approach demonstrates in a transparent way the rationale and challenging choices made by regulators when deriving a DWG.

While epidemiologic studies clearly demonstrate drinking water with high levels of arsenic as a significant risk factor for lung cancer, the evidence at low levels (≤50 μg/L) is uncertain. Therefore, we have conducted an ecological analysis of recent lung cancer incidence for US counties with a groundwater supply of., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are ubiquitous contaminants with high bioaccumulation and persistence in the environment; they can have adverse effects in humans and animals. This study examined residual concentrations in water, sediments, and fishes as well as the association between the health risks of OCPs and fish consumption in the Taiwanese population. Various water and sediment samples from Taiwanese aquaculture and fish samples from different sources were collected and analyzed through gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to determine the concentrations of 20 OCPs, namely, aldrin; cis-chlordane; trans-chlordane; dieldrin; endrin; alpha-endosulfan; beta-endosulfan; heptachlor; hexachlorobenzene; alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane; beta-hexachlorocyclohexane; lindane; mirex; pentachlorobenzene; o,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT); p,p'-DDT; and DDT metabolites (o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane [DDD]; p,p'-DDD; o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene [DDE]; and p,p'-DDE). None of the analyzed samples was positive for OCP contamination, suggesting no new input pollution from the land through washing into Taiwanese aquaculture environments. However, OCP residues were detected in fishes caught along the coast, namely, skipjack tuna and bigeye barracuda, and in imported fishes, such as codfish and salmon. DDT was the predominant pesticide. The contamination pattern of persistent organic pollutants was as follows: dieldrin > cis-chlordane > hexachlorobenzene, with average concentrations ranging from 0.09 to 2.74 ng/g. The risk was assessed in terms of the estimated daily intake (EDI) for potential adverse indices; the EDI of OCP residues was lower than 1% of the acceptable daily intake established by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization. The assessed risk was negligible and considered to be at a safe level, suggesting no association between fish consumption and risks to human health in Taiwan. However, a continuous monitoring program for OCP residues in fishes is necessary to further assess the possible effects on human health.

Stormwater particles washed from road-deposited sediments (RDS) are traditionally characterized as either turbidity or total suspended solids (TSS). Although these parameters are influenced by particle sizes, neither of them characterizes the particle size distribution (PSD), which is of great importance in pollutant entrainment and treatment performance. Therefore, the ratio of turbidity to TSS (Tur/TSS) is proposed and validated as a potential surrogate for the bulk PSD and quality of stormwater runoff. The results show an increasing trend of Tur/TSS with finer sizes of both RDS and stormwater runoff. Taking heavy metals (HMs, including Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, and Ni) as typical pollutants in stormwater runoff, the concentrations (mg/kg) were found to vary significantly during rainfall events and tended to increase significantly with Tur/TSS. Therefore, Tur/TSS is a valid parameter to characterize the PSD and quality of stormwater. The high negative correlations between Tur/TSS and rainfall intensity demonstrate that stormwater with higher Tur/TSS generates under low intensity and, thus, characterizes small volume, finer sizes, weak settleability, greater mobility, and bioavailability. Conversely, stormwater with lower Tur/TSS generates under high intensity and, thus, characterizes large volume, coarser sizes, good settleability, low mobility, and bioavailability. These results highlight the need to control stormwater with high Tur/TSS. Moreover, Tur/TSS can aid the selection of stormwater control measures with appropriate detention storage, pollution loading, and removal effectiveness of particles.

Triazine and urea herbicides are two groups of photosystem II inhibiting herbicides frequently detected in surface, ground and marine waters. Yet, there are few water quality guidelines for herbicides. Ecotoxicity thresholds (ETs) for ametryn, hexazinone and simazine (triazine herbicides) and diuron (a urea herbicide) were calculated using the Australian and New Zealand method for deriving guideline values to protect fresh and marine ecosystems. Four ETs were derived for each chemical and ecosystem that should theoretically protect 99, 95, 90 and 80% of species (i.e. PC99, PC95, PC90 and PC80, respectively). For all four herbicides, the phototrophic species were significantly more sensitive than non-phototrophic species, and therefore, only the former data were used to calculate the ETs. Comparison of the ET values to measured concentrations in 2606 samples from 15 waterways that discharge to the Great Barrier Reef (2011-2015) found three exceedances of the simazine PC99, regular exceedances (up to 30%) of the PC99 in a limited number of rivers for ametryn and hexazinone and frequent (> 40%) exceedances of the PC99 and PC95 ETs in at least four waterways for diuron. There were no exceedances of the marine ETs in inshore reef areas. Further, ecotoxicity data are required for ametryn and hexazinone to fresh and marine phototrophic species, for simazine to marine phototrophic species, for tropical phototrophic species, repeated pulse exposures and long-term (2 to 12 months) exposures to environmentally relevant concentrations.

Risk management of toxic substances is often based on Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) set for the water compartment, assuming they will also protect benthic organisms. In the absence of experimental data, EQS for sediments can be estimated by the equilibrium partitioning approach. The present study investigates whether this approach is protective of benthic organisms against pentachlorophenol (PCP), a legacy contaminant and EU priority substance still used in some parts of the world. Three freshwater species of invertebrates with different life cycles and feeding behaviors (the oligochaetes Lumbriculus variegatus, Tubifex tubifex and the dipteran insect Chironomus riparius) were exposed to PCP spiked sediments (2.10-46.03mgPCP/kg d.w. plus controls) in laboratory standard tests. Exposure duration was 28days for T. tubifex and L. variegatus and 10 and 28days for C. riparius; according to the corresponding OECD guidelines. For each investigated end-point, dose-response data were normalized to the mean control and fitted to a four-parameter log-logistic model for calculating the corresponding EC 50 and EC 10 . The ranges for EC 50 and EC 10 estimates were 4.39 (Chironomus riparius-emergence)-27.50 (Tubifex tubifex-cocoon) and 0.30 (T. tubifex-young worms) -16.70 (T. tubifex-cocoon) mg/kg d.w., respectively. The EC 50 and the EC 10 values of L. variegatus were within these ranges. Following the EU Technical Guidance for deriving EQS, the lowest EC 10 value of 0.30mg/kg (T. tubifex-young worms) resulted in a PCP quality standard (QS) for sediments of 30ng/g, about one fourth of the tentative QS of 119ng/g estimated by the equilibrium partitioning (EqP) approach. The response of benthic biota to PCP varied across organisms and across end-points for the same organism, so that the use of sediment PCP-QS calculated using the EqP-approach may be under-protective of the most sensitive organisms. Information on the possible effects of PCP on resident organisms must therefore be collected for appropriately managing aquatic systems., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Generic water quality criteria (WQC) of a chemical are usually set based on results generated from toxicity tests which were conducted using standard laboratory water with well-controlled physiochemical properties. However, in natural aquatic environments, physiochemical characteristics, such as salinity, total suspended solid, total organic carbon and the co-existence of chemical contaminants, often vary spatially and temporally. These parameters can, in turn, alter the bioavailability of target chemicals and, thus, influence their toxicity to marine organisms. To account for site specificity, the US Environmental Protection Agency's water-effect ratio (WER = site water-LC50 / laboratory water-LC50) procedure can be applied to derive site-specific WQC. Most past studies, however, were conducted for freshwater systems. Here, for the first time, the WER of copper (Cu) was determined for three marine water control zones (WCZs) in Hong Kong: Victoria Harbour, Deep Bay and Southern WCZs. Samples of water were collected from three locations within each WCZ, while acute toxicities to the marine diatom Skeletonema costatum, intertidal copepod Tigriopus japonicus and larvae of marine medaka Oryzias melastigma were determined in site or laboratory (artificial seawater) waters. Results of this study showed that conservative final WER relative coefficients for Cu ranged from 0.57 to 0.73 for the three WCZs, and water from some locations caused >30% mortality in the fish larvae in the controls (without Cu addition). These results suggested that current generic WQC for Cu are likely under-protective for marine organisms in the three areas, and it should be tightened by multiplying it with site-specific WER to offer better protection to marine biodiversity and integrity of the ecosystem.