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Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP) have resisted explanation and have received little formal scientific attention for 75 years. A primary objective of the Galileo Project is to build an integrated software and instrumentation system designed to conduct a multimodal census of aerial phenomena and to recognize anomalies. Here we present key motivations for the study of UAP and address historical objections to this research. We describe an approach for highlighting outlier events in the high-dimensional parameter space of our census measurements. We provide a detailed roadmap for deciding measurement requirements, as well as a science traceability matrix (STM) for connecting sought-after physical parameters to observables and instrument requirements. We also discuss potential strategies for deciding where to locate instruments for development, testing, and final deployment. Our instrument package is multimodal and multispectral, consisting of (1) wide-field cameras in multiple bands for targeting and tracking of aerial objects and deriving their positions and kinematics using triangulation; (2) narrow-field instruments including cameras for characterizing morphology, spectra, polarimetry, and photometry; (3) passive multistatic arrays of antennas and receivers for radar-derived range and kinematics; (4) radio spectrum analyzers to measure radio and microwave emissions; (5) microphones for sampling acoustic emissions in the infrasonic through ultrasonic frequency bands; and (6) environmental sensors for characterizing ambient conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity), as well as quasistatic electric and magnetic fields, and energetic particles. The use of multispectral instruments and multiple sensor modalities will help to ensure that artifacts are recognized and that true detections are corroborated and verifiable. Data processing pipelines are being developed that apply state-of-the-art techniques for multi-sensor data fusion, hypothesis tracking, semi-supervised classification, and outlier detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moving objects have characteristic signatures in multi-spectral images made by Earth observation satellites that use push broom scanning. While the general concept is applicable to all satellites of this type, each satellite design has its own unique imaging system and requires unique methods to analyze the characteristic signatures. We assess the feasibility of detecting moving objects and measuring their velocities in one particular archive of satellite images made by Planet Labs Corporation with their constellation of SuperDove satellites. Planet Labs data presents a particular challenge in that the images in the archive are mosaics of individual exposures and therefore do not have unique time stamps. We explain how the timing information can be restored indirectly. Our results indicate that the movement of common transportation vehicles, airplanes, cars, and boats, can be detected and measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strata from the Ediacaran Period (635 million to 538 million years ago [Ma]) contain several examples of enigmatic, putative shell-building metazoan fossils. These fossils may provide insight into the evolution and environmental impact of biomineralization on Earth, especially if their biological affinities and modern analogs can be identified. Recently, apparent morphological similarities with extant coralline demosponges have been used to assign a poriferan affinity to Namapoikia rietoogensis, a modular encrusting construction that is found growing between (and on) microbial buildups in Namibia. Here, we present three-dimensional reconstructions of Namapoikia that we use to assess the organism’s proposed affinity. Our morphological analyses, which comprise quantitative measurements of thickness, spacing, and connectivity, reveal that Namapoikia produced approximately millimeter-thick meandering and branching/merging sheets. We evaluate this reconstructed morphology in the context of poriferan biology and determine that Namapoikia likely is not a sponge-grade organism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: One important, almost ubiquitous, tool for understanding the surfaces of solid bodies throughout the solar system is the study of impact craters. While measuring a distribution of crater diameters and locations is an important tool for a wide variety of studies, so too is measuring a crater's “depth.” Depth can inform numerous studies including the strength of a surface and modification rates in the local environment. There is, however, no standard data set, definition, or technique to perform this data‐gathering task, and the abundance of different definitions of “depth” and methods for estimating that quantity can lead to misunderstandings in and of the literature. In this review, we describe a wide variety of data sets and methods to analyze those data sets that have been, are currently, or could be used to derive different types of crater depth measurements. We also recommend certain nomenclature in doing so to help standardize practice in the field. We present a review section of all crater depths that have been published on different solar system bodies which shows how the field has evolved through time and how some common assumptions might not be wholly accurate. We conclude with several recommendations for researchers which could help different data sets to be more easily understood and compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use topographic data to show that impact craters with pitted floor deposits are among the deepest on Mars. This is consistent with the interpretation of pitted materials as primary crater-fill impactite deposits emplaced during crater formation. Our database consists of 224 pitted material craters ranging in size from ∼1 to 150 km in diameter. Our measurements are based on topographic data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) and the High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). We have used these craters to measure the relationship between crater diameter and the initial post-formation depth. Depth was measured as maximum rim-to-floor depth, ( d r ), but we also report the depth measured using other definitions. The database was down-selected by refining or removing elevation measurements from “problematic” craters affected by processes and conditions that influenced their d r /D, such as pre-impact slopes/topography and later overprinting craters. We report a maximum (deepest) and mean scaling relationship of d r = ( 0.347  ±  0.021 ) D 0.537  ±  0.017 and d r = ( 0.323  ±  0.017 ) D 0.538  ±  0.016 , respectively. Our results suggest that significant variations between previously-reported MOLA-based d r vs. D relationships may result from the inclusion of craters that: 1) are influenced by atypical processes ( e.g. , highly oblique impact), 2) are significantly degraded, 3) reside within high-strength regions, and 4) are transitional (partially collapsed). By taking such issues into consideration and only measuring craters with primary floor materials, we present the best estimate to date of a MOLA-based relationship of d r vs. D for the least-degraded complex craters on Mars. This can be applied to crater degradation studies and provides a useful constraint for models of complex crater formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present observations and models that together explain many hallmarks of the structure and growth of small impact craters forming in targets with aligned fractures. Endurance Crater at Meridiani Planum on Mars (diameter≈150m) formed in horizontally-layered aeolian sandstones with a prominent set of wide, orthogonal joints. A structural model of Endurance Crater is assembled and used to estimate the transient crater planform. The model is based on observations from the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity: (a) bedding plane orientations and layer thicknesses measured from stereo image pairs; (b) a digital elevation model of the whole crater at 0.3m resolution; and (c) color image panoramas of the upper crater walls. This model implies that the crater’s current shape was mostly determined by highly asymmetric excavation rather than long-term wind-mediated erosion. We show that modal azimuths of conjugate fractures in the surrounding rocks are aligned with the square component of the present-day crater planform, suggesting excavation was carried farther in the direction of fracture alignments. This was previously observed at Barringer Crater in Arizona and we show the same relationship also holds for Tswaing Crater in South Africa. We present models of crater growth in which excavation creates a “stellate” transient cavity that is concave–cuspate in planform. These models reproduce the “lenticular-crescentic” layering pattern in the walls of some polygonal impact craters such as Endurance and Barringer Craters, and suggest a common origin for tear faults and some crater rays. We also demonstrate a method for detailed error analysis of stereogrammetric measurements of bedding plane orientations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrochemical techniques for depositing metal films and coatings have a long history. Such techniques essentially fall into two categories, with different advantages and disadvantages. The first, and oldest, makes use of spontaneous redox reactions to deposit a metal from solution, and can be used on both insulating and metallic substrates. But the deposition conditions of these processes are difficult to control in situ, in part because of the variety of salts and additives present in the solution. The second approach?electroplating?uses an electric current to reduce metal ions in solution, and offers control over the quantity (and, to some extent, grain size) of deposited metal. But application of this technique has hitherto been restricted to conducting substrates. Here we describe an electroplating technique that permits coating of insulating substrates with metals having controlled grain size, thickness and growth speed. The basis of our approach is the progressive outward growth of the metal from an electrode in contact with the substrate, with the cell geometry chosen so that the electron current providing the reduction passes through the growing deposit. Such an approach would normally form dendritic or powdery deposits, but we identify a range of conditions in which uniform films rapidly form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acoustic monitoring, omni-directional system (AMOS) in the Galileo Project is a passive, multi-band, field microphone suite designed to aid in the detection and characterization of aerial phenomena. Acoustic monitoring augments the Project's electromagnetic sensors suite by providing a relatively independent physical signal modality with which to validate the identification of known phenomena and to more fully characterize detected objects. The AMOS system spans infrasonic frequencies down to 0.05 Hz, all of audible, and ultrasonic frequencies up to 190 kHz. It uses three distinct systems with overlapping bandwidths: infrasonic (0.05 Hz – 20 Hz), audible (10 Hz – 20 kHz), and ultrasonic (16 kHz – 190 kHz). The sensors and their capture devices allow AMOS to monitor and characterize the tremendous range of sounds produced by natural and human-made aerial phenomena, and to encompass possible acoustic characteristics of novel sources. Sound signals from aerial objects can be captured and classified with a single microphone under the following conditions: the sound reaches the sensor; the sound level is above ambient noise; and the signal has not been excessively distorted by the transmission path. A preliminary examination of the signal and noise environment required for the detection and characterization of aerial objects, based on theoretical and empirical equations for sound attenuation in air, finds that moderately loud audible sources (100 dB) at 1 km are detectable, especially for frequencies below 1 kHz and in quiet, rural environments. Infrasonic sources are detectable at much longer distances and ultrasonic at much shorter distances. Preliminary aircraft recordings collected using the single, omni-directional audible microphone are presented, along with basic spectral analysis. Such data will be used in conjunction with flight transponder data to develop algorithms and corresponding software for quickly identifying known aircraft and characterizing the sound transmission path. Future work will include multi-sensor audible and infrasonic arrays for sound localization; analysis of larger and more diverse data sets; and exploration of machine learning and artificial intelligence integration for the detection and identification of many more types of known phenomena in all three frequency bands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantitative three-dimensional (3D) position and velocity estimates obtained by passive radar will assist the Galileo Project in the detection and classification of aerial objects by providing critical measurements of range, location, and kinematics. These parameters will be combined with those derived from the Project's suite of electromagnetic sensors and used to separate known aerial objects from those exhibiting anomalous kinematics. SkyWatch, a passive multistatic radar system based on commercial broadcast FM radio transmitters of opportunity, is a network of receivers spaced at geographical scales that enables estimation of the 3D position and velocity time series of objects at altitudes up to 80 km, horizontal distances up to 150 km, and at velocities to ± 2 km/s (± 6 Mach). The receivers are designed to collect useful data in a variety of environments varying by terrain, transmitter power, relative transmitter distance, adjacent channel strength, etc. In some cases, the direct signal from the transmitter may be large enough to be used as the reference with which the echoes are correlated. In other cases, the direct signal may be weak or absent, in which case a reference is communicated to the receiver from another network node via the internet for echo correlation. Various techniques are discussed specific to the two modes of operation and a hybrid mode. Delay and Doppler data are sent via internet to a central server where triangulation is used to deduce time series of 3D positions and velocities. A multiple receiver (multistatic) radar experiment is undergoing Phase 1 testing, with several receivers placed at various distances around the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), to validate full 3D position and velocity recovery. The experimental multistatic system intermittently records raw data for later processing to aid development. The results of the multistatic experiment will inform the design of a compact, economical receiver intended for deployment in a large-scale, mass-deployed mesh network. Such a network would greatly increase the probability of detecting and recording the movements of aerial objects with anomalous kinematics suggestive of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Galileo Project aims to shed light on the nature and characteristics of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP). We are developing a multi-modal instrumentation suite that will monitor the sky in seven electromagnetic and three audio bands. Computing will play a critical role in this project, enabling the automated collection and processing of data. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of data sources, and describe our plan for computing infrastructure and architecture. We present a proposed real-time pipeline for distinguishing between natural and human-made phenomena, and for detecting objects that fall outside the phenomenological envelope of known phenomena. In addition, we outline the algorithms we will test and evaluate for use in offline data analysis. While preliminary, our work represents a significant step towards a unified data capture and analysis platform for the systematic detection and rigorous scientific study of unusual aerial phenomena in a regional airspace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, there are little reliable data on the position, velocity and acceleration characteristics of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP). The dual hardware and software system described in this document provides a means to address this gap. We describe a weatherized multi-camera system which can capture images in the visible, infrared and near infrared wavelengths. We then describe the software we will use to calibrate the cameras and to robustly localize objects-of-interest in three dimensions. We show how object localizations captured over time will be used to compute the velocity and acceleration of airborne objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we review some of the extant literature on the study of interstellar objects (ISOs). With the forthcoming Vera C. Rubin Telescope and Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), we find that 0. 3 8 − 8 4 'Oumuamua-like interstellar objects are expected to be detected in the next 10 years, with 95% confidence. The feasibility of a rendezvous trajectory has been demonstrated in previous work. In this paper, we investigate the requirements for a rendezvous mission with the primary objective of producing a resolved image of an interstellar object. We outline the rendezvous distances necessary as a function of resolution elements and object size. We expand upon current population synthesis models to account for the size dependency on the detection rates for reachable interstellar objects. We assess the trade-off between object diameter and occurrence rate, and conclude that objects with the size range between a third of the size and the size of 'Oumuamua will be optimal targets for an imaging rendezvous. We also discuss expectations for surface properties and spectral features of interstellar objects, as well as the benefits of various spacecraft storage locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Since the Moon has no atmosphere it is possible to fly over the surface at very low altitudes without experiencing drag forces. If a spacecraft flying at a low altitude were to fire a projectile into the lunar surface, a second trailing spacecraft could capture material from the resulting cloud of ejecta. This procedure could be repeated over many sites on the Moon with a fresh collector for each location. Eventually, the collector spacecraft would seal its cargo in a reentry vehicle and return to Earth with the samples. Compared with a robotic lander, the advantage of this architecture is the ability to sample locations over the entire Moon, wherever the topography will permit such maneuvers. Our crater ejecta models show that 1–10g of material can be collected from the ejecta curtain of a 2m radius crater at an altitude of 150m, assuming a collector surface area of 1 square meter. We studied numerous means of creating these craters and developed two scenarios: a reduced velocity explosive excavator (EE), and a higher velocity impact excavator (IE). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ca. 1.8Ga Duck Creek Formation, Western Australia, preserves 1000m of carbonates and minor iron formation that accumulated along a late Paleoproterozoic ocean margin. Two upward-deepening stratigraphic packages are preserved, each characterized by peritidal precipitates at the base and iron formation and carbonate turbidites in its upper part. Consistent with recent studies of Neoarchean basins, carbon isotope ratios of Duck Creek carbonates show no evidence for a strong isotopic depth gradient, but carbonate minerals in iron formations can be markedly depleted in 13C. In contrast, oxygen isotopes covary strongly with depth; δ18O values as positive as 2‰ VPDB in peritidal facies systematically decline to values of −6 to −16‰ in basinal rocks, reflecting, we posit, the timing of diagenetic closure. The Duck Creek Formation contains microfossils similar to those of the Gunflint Formation, Canada; they are restricted to early diagenetic cherts developed in basinal facies, strengthening the hypothesis that such fossils capture communities driven by iron metabolism. Indeed, X-ray diffraction data indicate that the Duck Creek basin was ferruginous throughout its history. The persistence of ferruginous waters and iron formation deposition in Western Australia for at least several tens of millions of years after the transition to sulfidic conditions in Laurentia suggests that the late Paleoproterozoic expansion of sulfidic subsurface waters was globally asynchronous. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]