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The Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1777 and went into effect in 1781. They were soon found inadequate for smooth governmental operations, particularly as they related to the functioning of the federal government. As a result, a Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia from May 25 to September 17, 1787, to revise and improve them. In spite of their initial charge, some delegates to the convention intended to create an entirely new form of government as opposed to a revision of the existing one (Shelley et al. 1996; Webster 2016). The 55 delegates to the convention determined there would be three co-equal subdivisions of the federal government to include the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Subsequently, one of the major debates by the convention pertained to the structure of the legislative branch, with delegates eventually settling on a representative democracy (Madison 1996a). After a month of debate the delegates adopted the "Great Compromise" proposed by Roger Sherman of Connecticut which created a bicameral Congress with the number of each state's seats in the lower chamber being based on population size and each state getting two seats in the upper chamber (Meyerson 2002). The framers were well aware that the populations of the states would change and a complete census of the population was needed at a regular interval--here each decade for the reapportionment of seats in the House of Representatives (Madison 1996b). The decennial census has changed dramatically over the past two centuries, but it is critical to reiterate that the federal government is constitutionally required to complete the enumeration for reapportionment and redistricting.

The U.S. Constitution was drafted in Philadelphia from late May to mid-September 1787. The fifty-five delegates to the Constitutional Convention gathered to revise the Articles of Confederation but soon decided to write an entirely new document. These "Framers" were committed to forming a representative democracy, but their largely aristocratic views did not generally extend to broad support for direct democracy. While clearly the document was a much needed replacement for the Articles of Confederation, it also allowed for slavery; provided for state legislatures to select U.S. Senators; let the states define who could vote, resulting in an electorate of overwhelmingly white male property owners; and created the Electoral College, which rejected the direct election of the president of the United States (Kimberling n.d.; Dahl 2003). The 1787 debate over the process of selecting the country's chief executive was contentious. One idea was to have the Congress select the president, but this option was rejected for several reasons, including potential damage to the balance of power between the legislative and executive branches of government. A second option was to allow state legislatures to select the president. This possibility was rejected because it might create damage to the power of federal authority if the executive branch became dependent upon state legislatures. The direct election of the president was also considered, but there was insufficient support for its selection. As stated by Posner (2001, 31), "Most of the delegates held the aristocratic conception of the Presidency and were dubious about the capacity of the public at large … to pick the best candidate." There was also fear that the electorate would be unable to secure sufficient information due to high travel and communications costs to judge all of those running, leading many voters to cast ballots for local or regional candidates and parochialism. Another possible means of selection would "remove the choice of the President from the hands of popular majorities and to place the responsibility in the hands of a select body of wise, outstanding,and virtuous citizens" (Dahl 2003, 76). The outline of what became known as the Electoral College was developed by Alexander Hamilton in Federalist No. 68 (Wright 1996). While there have been well over 700 unsuccessful bills proposing constitutional amendments to reform or replace the Electoral College, it is highly unlikely that the Electoral College will be significantly reformed in coming years in spite of majority public support.

The United States is undergoing rapid demographic change leading to growing racial, ethnic, religious and economic diversity in our classrooms. Our students can be sensitized to this growing diversity through exposure to the concept of social justice. The purpose of this article is to provide examples of how social justice issues can be included in classroom discussions of the American system of political representation. For this purpose, it examines selected aspects of the redistricting process. It points out that our historic reliance upon the winner-take-all single-member district system of electing representatives to legislative bodies limits the opportunity for minority groups to be fairly represented. It also provides an overview of the impact of the criminal justice system upon fair political representation. The article concludes with an example of a classroom exercise to demonstrate its major points.

The world has experienced a dramatic increase in the number of new states in the past couple of decades. Many of these new countries are the result of ethnic nationalist movements dividing an existing state. Is the United States susceptible to the forces of division which we more commonly associate with the rest of the world? Or is the United States somehow exceptional in this regard? This article examines the growth of secessionist movements in the United States concluding these groups are similar to the forces of division operating elsewhere.

Explains that census results are the basis for geographic distribution of political power in the United States. Discusses the census, offering historical information that focuses on the issue of territorial representation. Explores the "reapportionment revolution," its impact on the census, and the controversy surrounding the 2000 Census. (CMK)

Outlines the historical development of women's legal and political status in the United States, focusing on suffrage, the three "waves" of women's movements, and access to elected office. Discusses three impediments of electing women candidates to public office: (1) solidarity; (2) political culture; and (3) the impact of the single-member district. (CMK)

Outlines the population, settlement, and ethnic geographies of the South from colonial times to the present. Speculates on what will affect the future population dynamics of the South in the twenty-first century. Focuses on, in particular, retirees, university communities, religious controversies, and racial tensions and relations. Provides useful background for teachers. (CMK)

Examines the geographical and political forces that are central to the process of legislative redistricting. Reviews the historical background of the redistricting process and discusses the importance of minority representation. Briefly looks at some of the alternative systems of representation that have been suggested to improve the quality of representation. (MJP)

Addresses Cuba's attempt to rebuild its tourism industry in an effort to combat its declining economy in the wake of reduced Russian aid. Provides a sketch of Cuban history and a discussion of the tourism highlighting contradictions between political rhetoric and economic policy. Reviews resource materials and ideas for classroom use. (DK)