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Leptospirosis is a ubiquitous, climate-sensitive bacterial zoonoses and a growing One Health problem (Goarant, 2015; Shearer et al., 2014). Leptospirosis is an underrecognized cause of morbidity and mortality in most mammalian species, including wildlife, livestock, companion animals, and humans. Animals can become infected with Leptospira bacteria through direct exposure to urine from infected wildlife and other animals, or through indirect exposure to urine-contaminated food, water, or soil (Goarant, 2015). Dogs play an important role in the transmission of leptospirosis to humans and other animals due to their frequent interactions with the natural environment and humans. Despite this, canine leptospirosis is poorly understood. Prevalence of canine leptospirosis is widespread and is expected to continue to increase, in part due to changing climatic conditions that support increased disease spread (Lau et al., 2010). Risk factors for canine leptospirosis are not well understood. Some studies have identified wet environmental conditions (Goarant, 2016; Smith et al., 2019), temperature (Goarant, 2016; Smith et al., 2019), rurality (Goarant, 2016; Taylor et al., 2021), sex/neuter status (Smith et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2021), and breed (Smith et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2021) as risk factors. However, conflicting evidence for the role of sex/neuter status, breed, and temperature exists (Goarant, 2016; Smith et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2021). A large knowledge gap exists with respect to broader environmental risk factors for canine leptospirosis. Given the paucity of evidence, increasing prevalence, and sensitivity to climate change, conducting a scoping review will summarize important upstream social and environmental risk factors for canine leptospirosis that have been described in peer-reviewed and grey literature. Identifying these factors will assist with future research initiatives.

Additional file 1: Table S1. PCR primers and reactions conditions

Background: Clostridium difficile is an important cause of intestinal infections in some animal species and animals might be a reservoir for community associated human infections. Here we describe a collection of animal associated C. difficile strains from 12 countries based on inclusion criteria of one strain (PCR ribotype) per animal species per laboratory. Results: Altogether 112 isolates were collected and distributed into 38 PCR ribotypes with agarose based approach and 50 PCR ribotypes with sequencer based approach. Four PCR ribotypes were most prevalent in terms of number of isolates as well as in terms of number of different host species: 078 (14.3% of isolates 4 hosts), 014/020 (11.6% 8 hosts) 002 (5.4% 4 hosts) and 012 (5.4% 5 hosts). Two animal hosts were best represented cattle with 31 isolates (20 PCR ribotypes 7 countries) and pigs with 31 isolates (16 PCR ribotypes 10 countries). Conclusions: This results show that although PCR ribotype 078 is often reported as the major animal C. difficile type, especially in pigs, the variability of strains in pigs and other animal hosts is substantial. Most common human PCR ribotypes (014/020 and 002) are also among most prevalent animal associated C. difficile strains worldwide. The widespread dissemination of toxigenic C. difficile and the considerable overlap in strain distribution between species furthers concerns about interspecies, including zoonotic, transmission of this critically important pathogen.

Appendix Risk Factor Questionnaire

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Most of the damage was to trees. Several trees in the narrow path were damaged between Garfield and Victoria. In general, young trees with a diameter of under 1ft were uprooted, larger trees, diameter greater than 1.5ft, appeared snapped off about halfway up. The snapped off tree tops appear to have caused a significant portion of the roof damage in the area. It appeared that only two or three houses sustained roof damage directly tied to the tornado. The uprooted/snapped off trees gave us the best indication of convergence and in one instance, we actually have two trees, on opposite sides of a pathway both converging into the path. . . Due to the sheds being moved, Scott and I think this is an F1 (low range) tornado.