Search

We report detailed functional analyses and genotype-phenotype correlations in 392 individuals carrying disease-causing variants in SCN8A, encoding the voltage-gated Na+ channel Nav1.6, with the aim of describing clinical phenotypes related to functional effects. Six different clinical subgroups were identified: Group 1, benign familial infantile epilepsy (n = 15, normal cognition, treatable seizures); Group 2, intermediate epilepsy (n = 33, mild intellectual disability, partially pharmaco-responsive); Group 3, developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (n = 177, severe intellectual disability, majority pharmaco-resistant); Group 4, generalized epilepsy (n = 20, mild to moderate intellectual disability, frequently with absence seizures); Group 5, unclassifiable epilepsy (n = 127); and Group 6, neurodevelopmental disorder without epilepsy (n = 20, mild to moderate intellectual disability). Those in Groups 1–3 presented with focal or multifocal seizures (median age of onset: 4 months) and focal epileptiform discharges, whereas the onset of seizures in patients with generalized epilepsy was later (median: 42 months) with generalized epileptiform discharges. We performed functional studies expressing missense variants in ND7/23 neuroblastoma cells and primary neuronal cultures using recombinant tetrodotoxin-insensitive human Nav1.6 channels and whole-cell patch-clamping. Two variants causing developmental and epileptic encephalopathy showed a strong gain-of-function (hyperpolarizing shift of steady-state activation, strongly increased neuronal firing rate) and one variant causing benign familial infantile epilepsy or intermediate epilepsy showed a mild gain-of-function (defective fast inactivation, less increased firing). In contrast, all three variants causing generalized epilepsy induced a loss-of-function (reduced current amplitudes, depolarizing shift of steady-state activation, reduced neuronal firing). Functional effects were known for 170 individuals. All 136 individuals carrying a functionally tested gain-of-function variant had either focal (n = 97, Groups 1–3) or unclassifiable (n = 39) epilepsy, whereas 34 individuals with a loss-of-function variant had either generalized (n = 14), no (n = 11) or unclassifiable (n = 6) epilepsy; only three had developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. Computational modelling in the gain-of-function group revealed a significant correlation between the severity of the electrophysiological and clinical phenotypes. Gain-of-function variant carriers responded significantly better to sodium channel blockers than to other anti-seizure medications, and the same applied for all individuals in Groups 1–3. In conclusion, our data reveal clear genotype-phenotype correlations between age at seizure onset, type of epilepsy and gain- or loss-of-function effects of SCN8A variants. Generalized epilepsy with absence seizures is the main epilepsy phenotype of loss-of-function variant carriers and the extent of the electrophysiological dysfunction of the gain-of-function variants is a main determinant of the severity of the clinical phenotype in focal epilepsies. Our pharmacological data indicate that sodium channel blockers present a treatment option in SCN8A-related focal epilepsy with onset in the first year of life.

Background Angelman syndrome (AS) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the absence of functional UBE3A in neurons. Excess low-frequency oscillations as measured with electroencephalography (EEG) have been identified as a characteristic finding, but the relationship of this EEG finding to the symptomatology of AS and its significance in the pathophysiology of AS remain unknown. Methods We used correlations and machine learning to investigate the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationship between EEG spectral power and motor, cognitive, and language skills (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition); adaptive behavior (Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition); AS-specific symptoms (AS Clinical Severity Scale); and the age of epilepsy onset in a large sample of children (age: 1–18 years) with AS due to a chromosomal deletion of 15q11-q13 (45 individuals with 72 visits). Results We found that after accounting for age differences, participants with stronger EEG delta-band abnormality had earlier onset of epilepsy and lower performance scores across symptom domains including cognitive, motor, and communication. Combing spatial and spectral information beyond the delta frequency band increased the cross-sectional association with clinical severity on average by approximately 45%. Furthermore, we found evidence for longitudinal correlations of EEG delta-band power within several performance domains, including the mean across Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, scores. Conclusions Our results show an association between EEG abnormalities and symptom severity in AS, underlining the significance of the former in the pathophysiology of AS. Furthermore, our work strengthens the rationale for using EEG as a biomarker in the development of treatments for AS, a concept that may apply more generally to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Objectives. To determine how deaths of infants with genetic diagnoses are described in national mortality statistics. Methods. We present a retrospective cohort study of mortality data, obtained from the National Death Index (NDI), and clinical data for 517 infants born from 2011 to 2017 who died before 1 year of age in the United States. Results. Although 115 of 517 deceased infants (22%) had a confirmed diagnosis of a genetic disorder, only 61 of 115 deaths (53%) were attributed to International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision codes representing congenital anomalies or genetic disorders (Q00-Q99) as the underlying cause of death because of inconsistencies in death reporting. Infants with genetic diagnoses whose underlying causes of death were coded as Q00-Q99 were more likely to have chromosomal disorders than monogenic conditions (43/61 [70%] vs 18/61 [30%]; P Conclusions. Genetic disorders, although a leading cause of infant mortality, are not accurately captured by vital statistics. Public Health Implications. Expanded access to genetic testing and further clarity in death reporting are needed to describe properly the contribution of genetic disorders to infant mortality.

Inherited optic neuropathies (IONs) are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by optic atrophy with or without extra-ocular manifestations. Optic atrophy-10 (OPA10) is an autosomal recessive ION recently reported to be caused by mutations in RTN4IP1, which encodes reticulon 4 interacting protein 1 (RTN4IP1), a mitochondrial ubiquinol oxydo-reductase. Here we report novel compound heterozygous mutations in RTN4IP1 in a male proband with developmental delay, epilepsy, optic atrophy, ataxia, and choreoathetosis. Workup was notable for transiently elevated lactate and lactate-to-pyruvate ratio, brain magnetic resonance imaging with optic atrophy and T2 signal abnormalities, and a non-diagnostic initial genetic workup, including chromosomal microarray and mitochondrial panel testing. Exome sequencing identified a paternally inherited missense variant (c.263T>G, p.Val88Gly) predicted to be deleterious and a maternally inherited deletion encompassing RTN4IP1. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a non-single nucleotide pathogenic variant associated with OPA10. This case highlights the expanding phenotypic spectrum of OPA10, the association between “syndromic” cases and severe RTN4IP1 mutations, and the importance of non-biased genetic testing, such as ES, to analyze multiple genes and variants types, in patients suspected of having genetic disease.

Angelman Syndrome (AS) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder due to impaired expression of UBE3A in neurons. There are several genetic mechanisms that impair UBE3A expression, but they differ in how neighboring genes on chromosome 15 at 15q11–q13 are affected. There is evidence that different genetic subtypes present with different clinical severity, but a systematic quantitative investigation is lacking. Here we analyze natural history data on a large sample of individuals with AS (n = 250, 848 assessments), including clinical scales that quantify development of motor, cognitive, and language skills (Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third Edition; Preschool Language Scale, Fourth Edition), adaptive behavior (Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales, Second Edition), and AS-specific symptoms (AS Clinical Severity Scale). We found that clinical severity, as captured by these scales, differs between genetic subtypes: individuals with UBE3A pathogenic variants and imprinting defects (IPD) are less affected than individuals with uniparental paternal disomy (UPD); of those with UBE3A pathogenic variants, individuals with truncating mutations are more impaired than those with missense mutations. Individuals with a deletion that encompasses UBE3A and other genes are most impaired, but in contrast to previous work, we found little evidence for an influence of deletion length (class I vs. II) on severity of manifestations. The results of this systematic analysis highlight the relevance of genomic regions beyond UBE3A as contributing factors in the AS phenotype, and provide important information for the development of new therapies for AS. More generally, this work exemplifies how increasing genetic irregularities are reflected in clinical severity.

Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS) is a tumor predisposition condition, the cardinal features of which emerge in adolescence or adulthood. Using statistical optimization, this study proposes NBCCS criteria with improved sensitivity in children less than 18 years of age. Earlier detection may lead to improved surveillance and prevention of sequelae. A survey eliciting medical history was completed by, or on behalf of, individuals with NBCCS. Based on these findings, criteria for suspicion of NBCCS in children were suggested using information from a Bernoulli naïve Bayes classifier relying on the human phenotype ontology. The sensitivity and specificity of the existing and proposed diagnostic criteria were also assessed. Participants (n = 48) reported their first signs of NBCCS appeared at a median age of 8 months, but by our retrospective analysis, they did not fulfill the current diagnostic criteria until a median age of 7 years. This study delineates the early-onset features of NBCCS and proposes criteria that should prompt consideration of NBCCS. Additionally, we demonstrate a method for quantitatively assessing the utility of diagnostic criteria for genetic disorders.

The additional sex combs-like (ASXL) gene family—encoded by ASXL1, ASXL2, and ASXL3—is crucial for mammalian development. Pathogenic variants in the ASXL gene family are associated with three phenotypically distinct neurodevelopmental syndromes. Our previous work has shown that syndromic conditions caused by pathogenic variants in epigenetic regulatory genes show consistent patterns of genome-wide DNA methylation (DNAm) alterations, i.e., DNAm signatures in peripheral blood. Given the role of ASXL1 in chromatin modification, we hypothesized that pathogenic ASXL1 variants underlying Bohring-Opitz syndrome (BOS) have a unique DNAm signature. We profiled whole-blood DNAm for 17 ASXL1 variants, and 35 sex- and age-matched typically developing individuals, using Illumina’s Infinium EPIC array. We identified 763 differentially methylated CpG sites in individuals with BOS. Differentially methylated sites overlapped 323 unique genes, including HOXA5 and HOXB4, supporting the functional relevance of DNAm signatures. We used a machine-learning classification model based on the BOS DNAm signature to classify variants of uncertain significance in ASXL1, as well as pathogenic ASXL2 and ASXL3 variants. The DNAm profile of one individual with the ASXL2 variant was BOS-like, whereas the DNAm profiles of three individuals with ASXL3 variants were control-like. We also used Horvath’s epigenetic clock, which showed acceleration in DNAm age in individuals with pathogenic ASXL1 variants, and the individual with the pathogenic ASXL2 variant, but not in individuals with ASXL3 variants. These studies enhance our understanding of the epigenetic dysregulation underpinning ASXL gene family-associated syndromes.

To determine the proportion of infant deaths occurring in the setting of a confirmed genetic disorder. A retrospective analysis of the electronic medical records of infants born from 1 January, 2011 to 1 June, 2017, who died prior to 1 year of age. Five hundred and seventy three deceased infants were identified. One hundred and seventeen were confirmed to have a molecular or cytogenetic diagnosis in a clinical diagnostic laboratory and an additional seven were diagnosed by research testing for a total of 124/573 (22%) diagnosed infants. A total of 67/124 (54%) had chromosomal disorders and 58/124 (47%) had single gene disorders (one infant had both). The proportion of diagnoses made by sequencing technologies, such as exome sequencing, increased over the years. The prevalence of confirmed genetic disorders within our cohort of infant deaths is higher than that previously reported. Increased efforts are needed to further understand the mortality burden of genetic disorders in infancy.

Background Angelman syndrome (AS) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder caused by either disruptions of the gene UBE3A or deletion of chromosome 15 at 15q11-q13, which encompasses UBE3A and several other genes, including GABRB3, GABRA5, GABRG3, encoding gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunits ( β 3, α 5, γ 3). Individuals with deletions are generally more impaired than those with other genotypes, but the underlying pathophysiology remains largely unknown. Here, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to test the hypothesis that genes other than UBE3A located on 15q11-q13 cause differences in pathophysiology between AS genotypes. Methods We compared spectral power of clinical EEG recordings from children (1–18 years of age) with a deletion genotype (n = 37) or a nondeletion genotype (n = 21) and typically developing children without Angelman syndrome (n = 48). Results We found elevated theta power (peak frequency: 5.3 Hz) and diminished beta power (peak frequency: 23 Hz) in the deletion genotype compared with the nondeletion genotype as well as excess broadband EEG power (1–32 Hz) peaking in the delta frequency range (peak frequency: 2.8 Hz), shared by both genotypes but stronger for the deletion genotype at younger ages. Conclusions Our results provide strong evidence for the contribution of non-UBE3A neuronal pathophysiology in deletion AS and suggest that hemizygosity of the GABRB3-GABRA5-GABRG3 gene cluster causes abnormal theta and beta EEG oscillations that may underlie the more severe clinical phenotype. Our work improves the understanding of AS pathophysiology and has direct implications for the development of AS treatments and biomarkers.

Purpose Prenatal occurrence and timing of appearance of associated features in Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) are unknown. We reviewed our BWS patients with serial fetal imaging and correlated these with postnatal findings. Methods All BWS patients with fetal ultrasound (US) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from 2000 to 2016 were reviewed to determine the presence of polyhydramnios, placentamegaly, macrosomia, macroglossia, retrognathia, omphalocele, visceromegaly, and hemihypertrophy. These observations were correlated with postnatal findings. Data were analyzed by Mann-Whitney U test. Results Nine BWS patients underwent 42 fetal imaging studies with median of five (range of two to six) studies per patient between 13 and 35 weeks gestation. All prenatal findings were confirmed postnatally with complete concordance. All patients with omphalocele were detected early in gestation but other postnatal findings less predictably so. All omphaloceles were small, and were found significantly earlier in gestation than macrosomia (P = 0.004) and macroglossia (P = 0.012). Visceromegaly and retrognathia were less frequent, with no significant differences in median gestational age from omphalocele when prenatally identified. Conclusions In BWS, omphalocele is the most common prenatal finding and routinely observed in early gestation with 100% accuracy. Associated findings of macrosomia, macroglossia, visceromegaly, and retrognathia, when present, are detected later in gestation. Imaging in later gestation may reveal additional abnormalities that support a BWS diagnosis.

MYH7-related disease (MRD) is the most common hereditary primary cardiomyopathy (CM), with pathogenic MYH7 variants accounting for approximately 40% of familial hypertrophic CMs. MRDs may also present as skeletal myopathies, with or without CM. Since pathogenic MYH7 variants result in highly variable clinical phenotypes, from mild to fatal forms of cardiac and skeletal myopathies, genotype-phenotype correlations are not always apparent, and translation of the genetic findings to clinical practice can be complicated. Data on genotype-phenotype correlations can help facilitate more specific and personalized decisions on treatment strategies, surveillance, and genetic counseling. We present a series of six MRD pedigrees with rare genotypes, encompassing various clinical presentations and inheritance patterns. This study provides new insights into the spectrum of MRD that is directly translatable to clinical practice.

BACKGROUND Epilepsy is highly prevalent in children with Angelman syndrome (AS), and its detailed characterization and relationship to the genotype (deletion vs nondeletion) is important both for medical practice and for clinical trial design. METHODS AND MATERIALS We retrospectively analyzed the main clinical features of epilepsy in 265 children with AS who were enrolled in the AS Natural History Study, a multicenter, observational study conducted at six centers in the United States. Participants were prospectively followed up and classified by genotype. RESULTS Epilepsy was reported in a greater proportion of individuals with a deletion than a nondeletion genotype (171 of 187 [91%] vs. 48 of 78 [61%], P

We report detailed functional analyses and genotype-phenotype correlations in 433 individuals carrying disease-causing variants in SCN8A, encoding the voltage-gated Na+ channel NaV1.6. Five different clinical subgroups could be identified: 1) Benign familial infantile epilepsy (BFIE) (n=17, normal cognition, treatable seizures), 2) intermediate epilepsy (n=36, mild ID, partially pharmacoresponsive), 3) developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE, n=191, severe ID, majority pharmacoresistant), 4) generalized epilepsy (n=21, mild to moderate ID, frequently with absence seizures), and 5) affected individuals without epilepsy (n=25, mild to moderate ID). Groups 1-3 presented with early-onset (median: four months) focal or multifocal seizures and epileptic discharges, whereas the onset of seizures in group 4 was later (median: 39 months) with generalized epileptic discharges. The epilepsy was not classifiable in 143 individuals. We performed functional studies expressing missense variants in ND7/23 neuroblastoma cells and primary neuronal cultures using recombinant tetrodotoxin insensitive human NaV1.6 channels and whole-cell patch clamping. Two variants causing DEE showed a strong gain-of-function (GOF, hyperpolarising shift of steady-state activation, strongly increased neuronal firing rate), and one variant causing BFIE or intermediate epilepsy showed a mild GOF (defective fast inactivation, less increased firing). In contrast, all three variants causing generalized epilepsy induced a loss-of-function (LOF, reduced current amplitudes, depolarising shift of steady-state activation, reduced neuronal firing). Including previous studies, functional effects were known for 165 individuals. All 133 individuals carrying GOF variants had either focal (76, groups 1-3), or unclassifiable epilepsy (37), whereas 32 with LOF variants had either generalized (14), no (11) or unclassifiable (5) epilepsy; only two had DEE. Computational modeling in the GOF group revealed a significant correlation between the severity of the electrophysiological and clinical phenotypes. GOF variant carriers responded significantly better to sodium channel blockers (SCBs) than to other anti-seizure medications, and the same applied for all individuals of groups 1-3.In conclusion, our data reveal clear genotype-phenotype correlations between age at seizure onset, type of epilepsy and gain- or loss-of-function effects of SCN8A variants. Generalized epilepsy with absence seizures is the main epilepsy phenotype of LOF variant carriers and the extent of the electrophysiological dysfunction of the GOF variants is a main determinant of the severity of the clinical phenotype in focal epilepsies. Our pharmacological data indicate that SCBs present a therapeutic treatment option in early onset SCN8A-related focal epilepsy.

Objective:To evaluate safety and tolerability and exploratory efficacy endpoints for gaboxadol (OV101) compared with placebo in individuals with Angelman syndrome (AS).Methods:Gaboxadol is a highly selective orthosteric agonist that activates γ-subunit–containing extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. In a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial, adolescent and adult individuals with a molecular diagnosis of AS were randomized (1:1:1) to 1 of 3 dosing regimens for a duration of 12 weeks: placebo morning dose and gaboxadol 15 mg evening dose (qd); gaboxadol 10 mg morning dose and 15 mg evening dose (bid); or placebo morning and evening dose. Safety and tolerability were monitored throughout the study. Prespecified exploratory efficacy endpoints included adapted Clinical Global Impression–Severity (CGI-S) and Clinical Global Impression–Improvement (CGI-I) scales which documented the clinical severity at baseline and change after treatment, respectively.Results:Eighty-eight individuals were randomized. Of 87 individuals (aged 13–45 years) who received at least 1 dose of study drug, 78 (90%) completed the study. Most adverse events (AEs) were mild to moderate, and no life-threatening AEs were reported. Efficacy of gaboxadol, as measured by CGI-I improvement in an exploratory analysis, was observed in gaboxadol qd vs placebo (p = 0.0006).Conclusion:After 12 weeks of treatment, gaboxadol was found to be generally well tolerated with a favorable safety profile. The efficacy as measured by the AS-adapted CGI-I scale warrants further studies.Classification of evidence:This study provides Class I evidence that, for individuals with AS, gaboxadol is generally safe and well tolerated.

The delineation of disease entities is complex, yet recent advances in the molecular characterization of diseases provide opportunities to designate diseases in a biologically valid manner. Here, we have formalized an approach to the delineation of Mendelian genetic disorders that encompasses two distinct but inter-related concepts: (1) the gene that is mutated and (2) the phenotypic descriptor, preferably a recognizably distinct phenotype. We assert that only by a combinatorial or dyadic approach taking both of these attributes into account can a unitary, distinct genetic disorder be designated. We propose that all Mendelian disorders should be designated as “GENE-related phenotype descriptor” (e.g., “CFTR-related cystic fibrosis”). This approach to delineating and naming disorders reconciles the complexity of gene-to-phenotype relationships in a simple and clear manner yet communicates the complexity and nuance of these relationships.

We describe the development of 236 children with Angelman syndrome (AS) using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition. Multilevel linear mixed modeling approaches were used to explore differences between molecular subtypes and over time. Individuals with AS continue to make slow gains in development through at least age 12years of age at about 1-2months/year based on age equivalent score and 1-16 growth score points/year depending on molecular subtype and domain. Children with a deletion have lower scores at baseline and slower rate of gaining skills while children with UBE3A variant subtype demonstrated higher scores as well as greater rates of skill attainment in all domains. The developmental profiles of UPD and ImpD were similar.

Angelman syndrome (AS) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder caused by loss of expression of the maternally-inherited UBE3A on chromosome 15q11.2. In AS due to a chromosomal deletion that encompasses UBE3A, paternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 15, or imprinting defects (ImpD), the SNRPN locus is unmethylated, while in neurotypical individuals, it is ∼50% methylated. We present the developmental profile of two adults with mild AS assessed using standardized behavioral and neurodevelopmental measures. Both had intellectual disability with unusually advanced verbal communication skills compared to other individuals with AS. Methylation of the SNRPN locus was examined using Methylation Specific Quantitative Melt Analysis (MS-QMA) in different tissues at one time point for participant A (22 years) and two time points for participant B (T1: 22 years, T2: 25 years), and these levels were compared to a typical AS cohort. While participant A showed methylation levels comparable to the typical AS cohort, participant B showed methylation mosaicism in all tissues at both time points and changes in methylation levels from T1 to T2. AS should be considered in individuals with intellectual disability and verbal speech who may not have the typical symptoms of AS.

PURPOSEBi-allelic TECPR2 variants have been associated with a complex syndrome with features of both a neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder. Here, we provide a comprehensive clinical description and variant interpretation framework for this genetic locus.METHODSThrough an international collaboration, we identified 17 individuals from 15 families with bi-allelic TECPR2-variants. We systemically reviewed clinical and molecular data from this cohort and 11 cases previously reported. Phenotypes were standardized using Human Phenotype Ontology terms.RESULTSA cross-sectional analysis revealed global developmental delay/intellectual disability, muscular hypotonia, ataxia, hyporeflexia, respiratory infections and central/nocturnal hypopnea as core manifestations. A review of brain MRI scans demonstrated a thin corpus callosum in 52%. We evaluated 17 distinct variants. Missense variants in TECPR2 are predominantly located in the N- and C-terminal regions containing β-propeller repeats. Despite constituting nearly half of disease associated TECPR2 variants, classifying missense variants as (likely) pathogenic according to ACMG criteria remains challenging. We estimate a pathogenic variant carrier frequency of 1/1,221 in the general and 1/155 in the Jewish Ashkenazi populations.CONCLUSIONBased on clinical, neuroimaging and genetic data, we provide recommendations for variant reporting, clinical assessment, and surveillance/treatment of individuals with TECPR2-associated disorder. This sets the stage for future prospective natural history studies.CONFLICTS OF INTERESTAll authors involved in the study declare no conflicts of interest relevant to this study.

Objective: Ectodermal dysplasia (ED) comprises multiple syndromes that affect skin, hair, nails, and teeth, and sometimes are associated with orofacial clefting. The purpose of this study is to (1) identify the prevalence and characteristics of cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P) in patients with ED and (2) describe the management and outcomes. Design: Retrospective review from 1990 to 2019. Patients: All patients with ED treated at Boston Children's Hospital. Main Outcomes Measures: Prevalence of CL/P was calculated and clinical details recorded: phenotypic anomalies, cleft type, operative treatment, and results of repair. Results: Of 170 patients with a purported diagnosis of ED, 24 (14%) had CL/P. Anatomic categories were bilateral CL/P (67%), unilateral CL/P (8%), and cleft palate only (25%). The most common ED syndrome (37%) was ectrodactyly, ectodermal dysplasia, and cleft lip/palate (EEC). Pathogenic variants in TP63 were the most frequent finding in the 11 patients who had genetic testing. Aberrations from a typical clinical course included failure of presurgical dentofacial orthopedics, dehiscence of nasolabial adhesion, and total palatal absence requiring free-flap construction. Two patients had prolonged postoperative admission for respiratory infection. High fistula (8%) and velopharyngeal insufficiency (33%) rates reflected the predominance of bilateral complete forms. Conclusions: As in other types of syndromic CL/P, cleft phenotypic expression in ED is more severe than the general cleft population. Further studies are needed to correlate genotype and phenotype for the distinct syndromes included in the ED spectrum.

Pathogenic variants in ZMYND11, which acts as a transcriptional repressor, have been associated with intellectual disability, behavioural abnormalities and seizures. Only 11 affected individuals have been reported to‐date, and the phenotype associated with pathogenic variants in this gene have not been fully defined.\ud \ud Here, we present 16 additional patients with predicted pathogenic heterozygous variants in ZMYND11, including four individuals from the same family, to further delineate and expand the genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of ZMYND11‐related syndromic intellectual disability. The associated phenotype includes developmental delay, particularly affecting speech, mild‐moderate intellectual disability, significant behavioural abnormalities, seizures, and hypotonia. There are subtle shared dysmorphic features, including prominent eyelashes and eyebrows, depressed nasal bridge with bulbous nasal tip, anteverted nares, thin vermilion of the upper lip and wide mouth. Novel features include brachydactyly and tooth enamel hypoplasia.\ud \ud Most identified variants are likely to result in premature truncation and/or nonsense mediated decay. Two ZMYND11 variants located in the final exon ‐ p.(Gln586*) (likely escaping nonsense‐mediated decay) and p.(Cys574Arg) ‐ are predicted to disrupt the MYND‐type zinc finger motif and likely interfere with binding to its interaction partners. Hence, the homogeneous phenotype likely results from a common mechanism of loss‐of‐function.

Variants in KCNT1, encoding a sodium-gated potassium channel (subfamily T member 1), have been associated with a spectrum of epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders. These range from familial autosomal dominant or sporadic sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy to epilepsy of infancy with migrating focal seizures (EIMFS) and include developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the phenotypic and genotypic spectrum of KCNT1 mutation-related epileptic disorders in 248 individuals, including 66 previously unpublished and 182 published cases, the largest cohort reported so far. Four phenotypic groups emerged from our analysis: (i) EIMFS (152 individuals, 33 previously unpublished); (ii) developmental and epileptic encephalopathies other than EIMFS (non-EIMFS developmental and epileptic encephalopathies) (37 individuals, 17 unpublished); (iii) autosomal dominant or sporadic sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy (53 patients, 14 unpublished); and (iv) other phenotypes (six individuals, two unpublished). In our cohort of 66 new cases, the most common phenotypic features were: (i) in EIMFS, heterogeneity of seizure types, including epileptic spasms, epilepsy improvement over time, no epilepsy-related deaths; (ii) in non-EIMFS developmental and epileptic encephalopathies, possible onset with West syndrome, occurrence of atypical absences, possible evolution to developmental and epileptic encephalopathies with sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy features; one case of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy; (iii) in autosomal dominant or sporadic sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy, we observed a high prevalence of drug-resistance, although seizure frequency improved with age in some individuals, appearance of cognitive regression after seizure onset in all patients, no reported severe psychiatric disorders, although behavioural/psychiatric comorbidities were reported in ∼50% of the patients, sudden unexplained death in epilepsy in one individual; and (iv) other phenotypes in individuals with mutation of KCNT1 included temporal lobe epilepsy, and epilepsy with tonic-clonic seizures and cognitive regression. Genotypic analysis of the whole cohort of 248 individuals showed only missense mutations and one inframe deletion in KCNT1. Although the KCNT1 mutations in affected individuals were seen to be distributed among the different domains of the KCNT1 protein, genotype–phenotype considerations showed many of the autosomal dominant or sporadic sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy-associated mutations to be clustered around the RCK2 domain in the C terminus, distal to the NADP domain. Mutations associated with EIMFS/non-EIMFS developmental and epileptic encephalopathies did not show a particular pattern of distribution in the KCNT1 protein. Recurrent KCNT1 mutations were seen to be associated with both severe and less severe phenotypes. Our study further defines and broadens the phenotypic and genotypic spectrums of KCNT1-related epileptic conditions and emphasizes the increasingly important role of this gene in the pathogenesis of early onset developmental and epileptic encephalopathies as well as of focal epilepsies, namely autosomal dominant or sporadic sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy.

Background Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a lack of expression of the maternally inherited UBE3A gene on chromosome 15. Individuals with AS due to a UBE3A mutation are more likely to have siblings who also have AS compared with those with AS due to other cytogenetic/molecular mechanisms, but it is unknown whether the developmental outcome of siblings who have AS is similar. Methods Through an ongoing AS Natural History Study, we identified seven pairs of siblings with AS due to a UBE3A mutation. We compared the neurodevelopment of the first-born and second-born siblings with AS participants who have a UBE3A mutation and have either typically developing siblings or no siblings. Results Second-born AS participants due to a UBE3A mutation were more likely to be diagnosed at an earlier age. With the exception of higher expressive language scores among the second-born participants, no other differences were observed in the developmental and adaptive functioning skills across the different groups. Conclusions The presence of an older sibling with the same neurodevelopmental disorder is associated with an earlier age of diagnosis and may be associated with an improvement in expressive language skills; the developmental outcome of siblings with AS due to a UBE3A mutation is otherwise comparable.

Esophageal atresia (EA) is a congenital anomaly occurring in 2.3 per 10,000 live births. Due to advances in prenatal imaging, EA is more readily diagnosed, but data on the associated genetic diagnoses, other anomalies, and postnatal outcome for fetuses diagnosed prenatally with EA are scarce. We collected data from two academic medical centers (n = 61). Our data included fetuses with suspected EA on prenatal imaging that was confirmed postnatally and had at least one genetic test. In our cohort of 61 cases, 29 (49%) were born prematurely and 19% of those born alive died in the first 9 years of life. The most commonly associated birth defects were cardiac anomalies (67%) and spine anomalies (50%). A diagnosis was made in 61% of the cases; the most common diagnoses were vertebral defects, anal atresia, cardiac anomalies, tracheoesophageal fistula with esophageal atresia, radial or renal dysplasia, and limb anomalies association (43%, although 12% met only 2 of the criteria), trisomy 21 (5%), and CHARGE syndrome (5%). Our findings suggest that most fetuses with prenatally diagnosed EA have one or more additional major anomaly that warrants a more comprehensive clinical genetics evaluation. Fetuses diagnosed prenatally appear to represent a cohort with a worse outcome.

The redox state of the neural progenitors regulates physiological processes such as neuronal differentiation and dendritic and axonal growth. The relevance of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated oxidoreductases in these processes is largely unexplored. We describe a severe neurological disorder caused by bi-allelic loss-of-function variants in thioredoxin (TRX)-related transmembrane-2 (TMX2); these variants were detected by exome sequencing in 14 affected individuals from ten unrelated families presenting with congenital microcephaly, cortical polymicrogyria, and other migration disorders. TMX2 encodes one of the five TMX proteins of the protein disulfide isomerase family, hitherto not linked to human developmental brain disease. Our mechanistic studies on protein function show that TMX2 localizes to the ER mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), is involved in posttranslational modification and protein folding, and undergoes physical interaction with the MAM-associated and ER folding chaperone calnexin and ER calcium pump SERCA2. These interactions are functionally relevant because TMX2-deficient fibroblasts show decreased mitochondrial respiratory reserve capacity and compensatory increased glycolytic activity. Intriguingly, under basal conditions TMX2 occurs in both reduced and oxidized monomeric form, while it forms a stable dimer under treatment with hydrogen peroxide, recently recognized as a signaling molecule in neural morphogenesis and axonal pathfinding. Exogenous expression of the pathogenic TMX2 variants or of variants with an in vitro mutagenized TRX domain induces a constitutive TMX2 polymerization, mimicking an increased oxidative state. Altogether these data uncover TMX2 as a sensor in the MAM-regulated redox signaling pathway and identify it as a key adaptive regulator of neuronal proliferation, migration, and organization in the developing brain.

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is an inborn error of metabolism that causes elevated leucine in the setting of acute illnesses. We describe an 8-year-old boy with MSUD who developed acute pancreatitis and subsequent leucinosis. This case highlights the complexities of fluid management in patients with MSUD.

PURA syndrome is a recently described developmental encephalopathy presenting with neonatal hypotonia, feeding difficulties, global developmental delay, severe intellectual disability, and frequent apnea and epilepsy. We describe 18 new individuals with heterozygous sequence variations in PURA. A neuromotor disorder starting with neonatal hyptonia, but ultimately allowing delayed progression to walking, was present in nearly all individuals. Congenital apnea was present in 56% during infancy, but all cases in this cohort resolved during the first year of life. Feeding difficulties were frequently reported, with gastrostomy tube placement required in 28%. Epilepsy was present in 50% of the subjects, including infantile spasms and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Skeletal complications were found in 39%. Disorders of gastrointestinal motility and nystagmus were also recurrent features. Autism was diagnosed in one individual, potentially expanding the neurodevelopmental phenotype associated with this syndrome. However, we did not find additional PURA sequence variations in a cohort of 120 subjects with autism. We also present the first neuropathologic studies of PURA syndrome, and describe chronic inflammatory changes around the arterioles within the deep white matter. We did not find significant correlations between mutational class and severity, nor between location of the sequence variation in PUR repeat domains. Further studies are required in larger cohorts of subjects with PURA syndrome to clarify these genotype-phenotype associations.

BACKGROUND: We aimed for a comprehensive delineation of genetic, functional and phenotypic aspects of GRIN2B encephalopathy and explored potential prospects of personalised medicine.METHODS: Data of 48 individuals with de novo GRIN2B variants were collected from several diagnostic and research cohorts, as well as from 43 patients from the literature. Functional consequences and response to memantine treatment were investigated in vitro and eventually translated into patient care.RESULTS: Overall, de novo variants in 86 patients were classified as pathogenic/likely pathogenic. Patients presented with neurodevelopmental disorders and a spectrum of hypotonia, movement disorder, cortical visual impairment, cerebral volume loss and epilepsy. Six patients presented with a consistent malformation of cortical development (MCD) intermediate between tubulinopathies and polymicrogyria. Missense variants cluster in transmembrane segments and ligand-binding sites. Functional consequences of variants were diverse, revealing various potential gain-of-function and loss-of-function mechanisms and a retained sensitivity to the use-dependent blocker memantine. However, an objectifiable beneficial treatment response in the respective patients still remains to be demonstrated.CONCLUSIONS: In addition to previously known features of intellectual disability, epilepsy and autism, we found evidence that GRIN2B encephalopathy is also frequently associated with movement disorder, cortical visual impairment and MCD revealing novel phenotypic consequences of channelopathies.

Purpose: This study characterizes the clinical and genetic features of nine unrelated patients with de novo variants in the NR4A2 gene. Methods: Variants were identified and de novo origins were confirmed through trio exome sequencing in all but one patient. Targeted RNA sequencing was performed for one variant to confirm its splicing effect. Independent discoveries were shared through GeneMatcher. Results: Missense and loss-of-function variants in NR4A2 were identified in patients from eight unrelated families. One patient carried a larger deletion including adjacent genes. The cases presented with developmental delay, hypotonia (six cases), and epilepsy (six cases). De novo status was confirmed for eight patients. One variant was demonstrated to affect splicing and result in expression of abnormal transcripts likely subject to nonsense-mediated decay. Conclusion: Our study underscores the importance of NR4A2 as a disease gene for neurodevelopmental disorders and epilepsy. The identified variants are likely causative of the seizures and additional developmental phenotypes in these patients.

BackgroundThe objective of this study is to describe variations in the healthcare resource utilization (HRU) among individuals with Angelman syndrome (AS) over the first 12 years of life. Data for this study were drawn from the AS Natural History study (ASNHS), which is an observational study on the developmental progress, behavior, and medical morbidity of individuals with AS conducted over eight years. Caregiver-reported information on hospitalization, surgery, and medication utilization was used to assess HRU. Repeated measures mixed effect models were used to assess the relationship between age and probability of hospitalization, surgery, and prescription medication utilization.ResultsMean age at study enrollment was 6 years of age and both sexes were equally represented. The mean number of visits per participant was three. Results from this study suggest that individuals with AS have a high HRU burden. Hospitalization and surgery burden were highest in the first year of life. Use of medications for seizures and sleep disturbance increased over time.ConclusionsThe study highlights the significant healthcare burden among individuals with AS. Future studies that estimate cost and caregiver burden associated with AS are needed to assess the lifelong economic impact of AS on families and healthcare system.

Author(s): Khan, Nasreen; Cabo, Raquel; Tan, Wen-Hann; Tayag, Regina; Bird, Lynne M | Abstract: BackgroundThe objective of this study is to describe healthcare resource utilization (HRU) and supportive therapy utilization (STU) among individuals with Angelman syndrome (AS), and to compare such usage by molecular etiology.MethodsParticipants were categorized into deletion and non-deletion genotypes. Statistical differences were assessed using an independent samples t test.ResultsData were available on 302 individuals. Mean age of participants was 5.5 years, 92% of whom were less than 13 years, and 71% had the deletion etiology. About 68% of participants had at least one hospitalization since birth to enrollment in the study; the average number of hospitalizations during that time period was 2.3 and average length of stay was 4.5 days. The most common reasons for hospitalization were seizures, lower respiratory infections, and surgery. The most common reasons for surgery were myringotomy, strabismus surgery, tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy, and gastrostomy tube insertion/fundoplication. Anticonvulsants, gastroesophageal reflux disease, sleep, and behavioral medications were the most commonly prescribed drugs. STU was high among individuals with AS.ConclusionsThis study shows that individuals with AS have high HRU/STU, and apart from a few differences, HRU/STU was similar across molecular etiology. These results reflect usage in younger individuals and studies that describe HRU/STU in older individuals are needed.

We describe an infant with a phenotype typical of early onset Marfan syndrome whose genetic evaluation, including Sanger sequencing and deletion/duplication testing of FBN1 and exome sequencing, was negative. Ultimately, genome sequencing revealed a deletion missed on prior testing, demonstrating the unique utility of genome sequencing for molecular genetic diagnosis.

One of the goals of evaluating a patient in the genetics clinic is to find the diagnosis that would explain his or her clinical presentation. Sometimes the patient's diagnosis remains undefined or does not explain all of the clinical findings. As clinicians are often guided by a "single disorder" paradigm, diagnosing multiple genetic conditions in the same patient requires a heightened sense of awareness. Over the last few years, we evaluated several patients (n = 14) who were found to have more than one genetic diagnosis. In this paper, we will describe their natural history and diagnoses, and draw on the lessons learned from this phenomenon, which we expect to grow in this era of next-generation diagnostic technologies. To our knowledge, this is by far the largest series of patients with double diagnoses. Based on our findings, we strongly recommend that physicians question every diagnosis to determine whether it indeed explains all of the patients' symptoms, and consider whether they should continue the diagnostic evaluation to look for a more accurate and complete set of diagnoses. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

ADCY5 mutations have been reported as a cause of early onset hyperkinetic movements associated with delayed motor milestones, hypotonia, and exacerbation during sleep. The movement disorder may be continuous or episodic, and can vary considerably in severity within families and in individuals. The authors report a case series of 3 patients with ADCY5 mutations treated with deep brain stimulation after unsuccessful medication trials. All had extensive imaging, metabolic, and genetic testing prior to confirmation of their ADCY5 mutation. Two of the patients had the c.1252C>T; p.R418W mutation, while the youngest and most severely affected had a de novo c.2080_2088del; p.K694_M696 mutation. All had variable and incomplete, but positive responses to deep brain stimulation. The authors conclude that deep brain stimulation may provide benefit in ADCY5-related movement disorders. Long-term efficacy remains to be confirmed by longitudinal observation. ADCY5 should be considered in the differential diagnosis of early onset hyperkinetic movement disorders, and may respond to deep brain stimulation.

Sequence variants in CRB2 cause a syndrome with greatly elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein and amniotic fluid alpha-fetoprotein levels, cerebral ventriculomegaly and renal findings similar to Finnish congenital nephrosis. All reported patients have been homozygotes or compound heterozygotes for sequence variants in the Crumbs, Drosophila, Homolog of, 2 (CRB2) genes. Variants affecting CRB2 function have also been identified in four families with steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome, but without any other known systemic findings. We ascertained five, previously unreported individuals with biallelic variants in CRB2 that were predicted to affect function. We compiled the clinical features of reported cases and reviewed available literature for cases with features suggestive of CRB2-related syndrome in order to better understand the phenotypic and genotypic manifestations. Phenotypic analyses showed that ventriculomegaly was a common clinical manifestation (9/11 confirmed cases), in contrast to the original reports, in which patients were ascertained due to renal disease. Two children had minor eye findings and one was diagnosed with a B-cell lymphoma. Further genetic analysis identified one family with two affected siblings who were both heterozygous for a variant in NPHS2 predicted to affect function and separate families with sequence variants in NPHS4 and BBS7 in addition to the CRB2 variants. Our report expands the clinical phenotype of CRB2-related syndrome and establishes ventriculomegaly and hydrocephalus as frequent manifestations. We found additional sequence variants in genes involved in kidney development and ciliopathies in patients with CRB2-related syndrome, suggesting that these variants may modify the phenotype.