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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent cause of dementia1. Although there is no effective treatment for AD, passive immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies against amyloid beta (Aβ) is a promising therapeutic strategy2,3. Meningeal lymphatic drainage has an important role in the accumulation of Aβ in the brain4, but it is not known whether modulation of meningeal lymphatic function can influence the outcome of immunotherapy in AD. Here we show that ablation of meningeal lymphatic vessels in 5xFAD mice (a mouse model of amyloid deposition that expresses five mutations found in familial AD) worsened the outcome of mice treated with anti-Aβ passive immunotherapy by exacerbating the deposition of Aβ, microgliosis, neurovascular dysfunction, and behavioural deficits. By contrast, therapeutic delivery of vascular endothelial growth factor C improved clearance of Aβ by monoclonal antibodies. Notably, there was a substantial overlap between the gene signature of microglia from 5xFAD mice with impaired meningeal lymphatic function and the transcriptional profile of activated microglia from the brains of individuals with AD. Overall, our data demonstrate that impaired meningeal lymphatic drainage exacerbates the microglial inflammatory response in AD and that enhancement of meningeal lymphatic function combined with immunotherapies could lead to better clinical outcomes. Meningeal lymphatic drainage can affect the microglial inflammatory response and anti-amyloid-β immunotherapy in mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease.

Interleukin (IL)-17a has been highly conserved during evolution of the vertebrate immune system and widely studied in contexts of infection and autoimmunity. Studies suggest that IL-17a promotes behavioral changes in experimental models of autism and aggregation behavior in worms. Here, through a cellular and molecular characterization of meningeal γδ17 T cells, we defined the nearest central nervous system–associated source of IL-17a under homeostasis. Meningeal γδ T cells express high levels of the chemokine receptor CXCR6 and seed meninges shortly after birth. Physiological release of IL-17a by these cells was correlated with anxiety-like behavior in mice and was partially dependent on T cell receptor engagement and commensal-derived signals. IL-17a receptor was expressed in cortical glutamatergic neurons under steady state and its genetic deletion decreased anxiety-like behavior in mice. Our findings suggest that IL-17a production by meningeal γδ17 T cells represents an evolutionary bridge between this conserved anti-pathogen molecule and survival behavioral traits in vertebrates. IL-17a is an evolutionarily conserved cytokine with behavior-modulating roles in the central nervous system. Kipnis and colleagues characterize a population of meningeal γδ17 T cells that use IL-17a to elicit anxiety-like behavior through cortical glutamatergic neurons.

This study investigated the social networks developed by language learners during 14 weeks of an intensive English as a second language (ESL) program using the Study Abroad Social Interaction Questionnaire (Dewey, Bown, Baker, Martinsen, Gold, & Eggett, 2014; Dewey, Bown, & Eggett, 2012). It also utilized native speaker judgments to evaluate ESL fluency development. Results showed that participants were successful in developing complex social networks, that their oral fluency increased significantly, and that fluency gains were related to L2 social networks. Density (average number of people in a social group) was the most important predictor of fluency gain when only social network variables were considered. In a hierarchical regression, initial proficiency level and percentage of native English speakers in one’s network were the most significant of the established variables in the first step, and overall network size and density were the most important of the added social network variables in the second step.

Dysfunctional meningeal immunity is associated with cognitive decline, impaired glymphatics, and enhanced Alzheimer’s pathology., Aging leads to a progressive deterioration of meningeal lymphatics and peripheral immunity, which may accelerate cognitive decline. We hypothesized that an age-related reduction in C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7)–dependent egress of immune cells through the lymphatic vasculature mediates some aspects of brain aging and potentially exacerbates cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease–like brain β-amyloid (Aβ) pathology. We report a reduction in CCR7 expression by meningeal T cells in old mice that is linked to increased effector and regulatory T cells. Hematopoietic CCR7 deficiency mimicked the aging-associated changes in meningeal T cells and led to reduced glymphatic influx and cognitive impairment. Deletion of CCR7 in 5xFAD transgenic mice resulted in deleterious neurovascular and microglial activation, along with increased Aβ deposition in the brain. Treating old mice with anti-CD25 antibodies alleviated the exacerbated meningeal regulatory T cell response and improved cognitive function, highlighting the therapeutic potential of modulating meningeal immunity to fine-tune brain function in aging and in neurodegenerative diseases.

Getting around the blood–brain barrier The meninges comprise three membranes that surround and protect the central nervous system (CNS). Recent studies have noted the existence of myeloid cells resident there, but little is known about their ontogeny and function, and whether other meningeal immune cell populations have important roles remains unclear (see the Perspective by Nguyen and Kubes). Cugurra et al. found in mice that a large proportion of continuously replenished myeloid cells in the dura mater are not blood derived, but rather transit from cranial bone marrow through specialized channels. In models of CNS injury and neuroinflammation, the authors demonstrated that these myeloid cells have an immunoregulatory phenotype compared with their more inflammatory blood-derived counterparts. Similarly, Brioschi et al. show that the meninges host B cells that are also derived from skull bone marrow, mature locally, and likely acquire a tolerogenic phenotype. They further found that the brains of aging mice are infiltrated by a second population of age-associated B cells, which come from the periphery and may differentiate into autoantibody-secreting plasma cells after encountering CNS antigens. Together, these two studies may inform future treatment of neurological diseases. Science , abf7844, abf9277, this issue p. eabf7844 , p. eabf9277 ; see also abj8183, p. 396

One setting's focus on the importance of the key person became even more valuable during lockdown, report Wendy Baker and Sally Cave

Interleukin (IL)-17a has been highly conserved during evolution of the vertebrate immune system and widely studied in contexts of infection and autoimmunity. Studies suggest that IL-17a promotes behavioral changes in experimental models of autism and aggregation behavior in worms. Here, through a cellular and molecular characterization of meningeal γδ17 T cells, we defined the nearest central nervous system–associated source of IL-17a under homeostasis. Meningeal γδ T cells express high levels of the chemokine receptor CXCR6 and seed meninges shortly after birth. Physiological release of IL-17a by these cells was correlated with anxiety-like behavior in mice and was partially dependent on T cell receptor engagement and commensal-derived signals. IL-17a receptor was expressed in cortical glutamatergic neurons under steady state and its genetic deletion decreased anxiety-like behavior in mice. Our findings suggest that IL-17a production by meningeal γδ17 T cells represents an evolutionary bridge between this conserved anti-pathogen molecule and survival behavioral traits in vertebrates. IL-17a is an evolutionarily conserved cytokine with behavior-modulating roles in the central nervous system. Kipnis and colleagues characterize a population of meningeal γδ17 T cells that use IL-17a to elicit anxiety-like behavior through cortical glutamatergic neurons.

The current study determines the influence of cross-language similarity on native English speakers’ perception and production of Marshallese consonant contrasts. Marshallese provides a unique opportunity to study this influence because all Marshallese consonants have a secondary articulation. Results of discrimination and production tasks indicate that learners more easily acquire sounds if they are perceptually less similar to native language phonemes. In addition, the degree of cross-language similarity seemed to affect perception and production and may also interact with the effect of orthography.

Summary Despite the established dogma of central nervous system (CNS) immune privilege, neuroimmune interactions play an active role in diverse neurological disorders. However, the precise mechanisms underlying CNS immune surveillance remain elusive; particularly, the anatomical sites where peripheral adaptive immunity can sample CNS-derived antigens and the cellular and molecular mediators orchestrating this surveillance. Here, we demonstrate that CNS-derived antigens in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) accumulate around the dural sinuses, are captured by local antigen-presenting cells, and are presented to patrolling T cells. This surveillance is enabled by endothelial and mural cells forming the sinus stromal niche. T cell recognition of CSF-derived antigens at this site promoted tissue resident phenotypes and effector functions within the dural meninges. These findings highlight the critical role of dural sinuses as a neuroimmune interface, where brain antigens are surveyed under steady-state conditions, and shed light on age-related dysfunction and neuroinflammatory attack in animal models of multiple sclerosis.

Two case studies of calcium fatty acid salts in oil paint are presented. The first is a nineteenth-century oil on canvas painting, and the second is a decoratively painted ceiling. In both cases, the calcium soaps have formed in the lower layers of the paint systems and are associated with significant delamination and paint loss. The results of analysis of samples from the two works using FTIR, SEM-EDX, Raman, PLM, and Py-GC-MS are presented. The components of the paint and ground involved in the soap formation, the conditions that may have led to their formation, and the treatment strategies that were chosen are described.

This study analyzed L2 Chinese development in regards to fluency, tonal accuracy, vocabulary acquisition, and task fulfillment during a study abroad (SA) program in China. Tonal accuracy has not been investigated in previous SA research, which has focused largely on non-tonal languages. Furthermore, task fulfillment, a metric linked to L2 proficiency and linguistic ability has not been included in previous SA research either. Twenty-two L2 learners of Chinese completed Simulated Oral Proficiency Interviews (SOPIs) before and after SA. These SOPI recordings were analyzed for a series of fluency measures (speech rate, filled pauses, unfilled pauses, and mean pause length), tonal accuracy percentages, type-token ratios, and task fulfillment. Mixed linear model analyses of these repeated measures showed that, when compared to participants' pre-test scores, their post-test scores showed significant improvement for tonal accuracy, vocabulary development, and task fulfillment as well as for all measures of fluency, showing a faster speech rate and shorter pauses.

Studies have found that Mormons and non-Mormons in Utah exhibit significant linguistic differences. We break this down further by investigating whether there are also differences between Mormons who actively participate in the religion and those who do not, and find significant differences with a medium or larger effect size between the groups for multiple variables. We conclude that when investigating the linguistic correlates of religious affiliation in a community, it is vital to elicit not just respondents' religious affiliations, but also their level of participation within that religion.

SummaryMutations in MECP2, encoding the epigenetic regulator methyl-CpG-binding protein 2, are the predominant cause of Rett syndrome, a disease characterized by both neurological symptoms and systemic abnormalities. Microglial dysfunction is thought to contribute to disease pathogenesis, and here we found microglia become activated and subsequently lost with disease progression in Mecp2-null mice. Mecp2 was found to be expressed in peripheral macrophage and monocyte populations, several of which also became depleted in Mecp2-null mice. RNA-seq revealed increased expression of glucocorticoid- and hypoxia-induced transcripts in Mecp2-deficient microglia and peritoneal macrophages. Furthermore, Mecp2 was found to regulate inflammatory gene transcription in response to TNF stimulation. Postnatal re-expression of Mecp2 using Cx3cr1creER increased the lifespan of otherwise Mecp2-null mice. These data suggest that Mecp2 regulates microglia and macrophage responsiveness to environmental stimuli to promote homeostasis. Dysfunction of tissue-resident macrophages might contribute to the systemic pathologies observed in Rett syndrome.

Ageing is a major risk factor for many neurological pathologies, but its mechanisms remain unclear. Unlike other tissues, the parenchyma of the central nervous system (CNS) lacks lymphatic vasculature and waste products are removed partly through a paravascular route. (Re)discovery and characterization of meningeal lymphatic vessels has prompted an assessment of their role in waste clearance from the CNS. Here we show that meningeal lymphatic vessels drain macromolecules from the CNS (cerebrospinal and interstitial fluids) into the cervical lymph nodes in mice. Impairment of meningeal lymphatic function slows paravascular influx of macromolecules into the brain and efflux of macromolecules from the interstitial fluid, and induces cognitive impairment in mice. Treatment of aged mice with vascular endothelial growth factor C enhances meningeal lymphatic drainage of macromolecules from the cerebrospinal fluid, improving brain perfusion and learning and memory performance. Disruption of meningeal lymphatic vessels in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease promotes amyloid-β deposition in the meninges, which resembles human meningeal pathology, and aggravates parenchymal amyloid-β accumulation. Meningeal lymphatic dysfunction may be an aggravating factor in Alzheimer’s disease pathology and in age-associated cognitive decline. Thus, augmentation of meningeal lymphatic function might be a promising therapeutic target for preventing or delaying age-associated neurological diseases.

The current study examined the relationship between overall second language (L2) proficiency and utterance fluency measures for several L2s in order to determine whether utterance measures can be used to predict L2 proficiency. The study measured the speech rate, number of hesitations, number and length of pauses, number and length of runs, and number of false starts using excerpts from 126 ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interviews (OPIs) spoken by 86 participants. Forty of the participants provided pre- and post-OPI speech samples, which also allowed examination of changes over time. All 86 participants were native English speakers who spoke L2 French, German, Japanese, Arabic, or Russian. They ranged in proficiency from Novice Mid to Superior. Results suggested that some L2 utterance fluency measures correlated significantly with overall L2 proficiency for all L2s, but data also revealed some differences across L2s. These differences hinged partly on the L2's relative difficulty for native English speakers. Results suggested that it might be feasible to use specific fluency measures to estimate proficiency, in particular at higher levels, but that fine-grained sublevel estimates would not be recommended, in particular at the Novice and Intermediate levels.Key words: assessment, foreign/second second language learning/acquisition, oral proficiency (OPI and OPIc), proficiency, quantitative researchIntroductionUnderstanding the relationship between a second language (L2) learner's oral fluency and oral proficiency has important implications for L2 acquisition theories, pedagogical practices, high-stakes testing, and so on (de Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen, & Hulstijn, 2013; Ginther, Dimova, & Yang, 2010; Segalowitz, 2010; Skehan, 2009). For example, determining the relationship between these two may provide a better understanding of how the L2 system develops (Segalowitz, 2010; Skehan, 2009), which in turn may generate better teaching methods for improving oral L2 fluency and, as a result, help learners develop greater L2 proficiency (de Jong & Perfetti, 2011). Moreover, knowing how fluency development may vary according to proficiency from one L2 to another can allow educators to know what to expect and how to appropriately weigh various aspects of fluency as they promote the proficiency development of their learners. Finally, those interested in high-stakes testing might examine whether automatically measuring L2 fluency could replace more laborious and expensive manual rating systems for estimating L2 proficiency (Ginther et ah, 2010; Ushigusa, 2009). The purpose of the current study is to better understand the relationship between oral fluency and L2 proficiency, especially as it relates to different L1-L2 combinations and at different ACTFL proficiency levels and sublevels.Literature ReviewThe term fluency, especially in an L2 context, has several definitions, most of which refer to fluidity or ease of speech (Guillot, 1999; Kormos, 2006; Riggenbach, 2000; Schmidt, 1992; Segalowitz, 2010). In its broad sense, as defined by Lennon (1990), L2 fluency is often synonymous with overall L2 proficiency. In this sense, when laypeople use the word fluency, they often mean proficiency (Guillot, 1999). More narrowly, fluency can refer to language that is produced fluidly and smoothly as one combines words and sentences in speech. In this sense, the term is used in most L2 research to complement accuracy (i.e., error-free language) and complexity (i.e., language spoken with situation-appropriate forms) as one of the three main aspects of proficiency (Towell, 2012). However, these three factors may influence each other differently depending on the speaker's L2 proficiency (Skehan, 2001, 2009; Taguchi, 2008). Segalowitz (2010) further divided this narrow sense of fluency into three subcategories: cognitive fluency, a speaker's ability to plan and execute L2 speech smoothly and easily; perceived fluency, a native speaker's subjective impression of a nonnative speaker's ease of producing speech; and utterance fluency, often called temporal fluency, the measurable features for the ease and smoothness of L2 speech, such as the speech rate, number of hesitations, and number and length of pauses. …

The current study reports on the “rhetoric revision log,” which was developed to help second language writing students track their progress in improving rhetoric-related issues in their writing (such as organization and topic development). Sixty-six English as a second language (ESL) students were divided into one control and two treatment groups. Students in the two treatment groups used the rhetoric revision log to keep a record of teacher written feedback in several rhetoric-related areas throughout the course of one semester. The two treatment groups differed in that in one the students used only the log (log-only), while in the other (log + conference) students also participated in structured writing conferences in which the teacher discussed the rhetoric revision log with the students. Results revealed that both treatment groups improved more in their overall writing ability than the control group. Moreover, students in the log + conference group were more likely than the other two groups to improve in rhetoric-related writing features over the course of the semester. These findings suggest that using the rhetoric revision log helped students improve not only rhetoric-related aspects of their writing, but also their overall writing ability.

Objective: Physical comorbidities shorten the lifespan of people with severe mental illness therefore mental health clinicians need to support service users in risk factor-related behaviour change. We investigated mental health care workers’ views of a physical health self-management support program in order to identify implementation requirements. Method: Qualitative interviews were conducted with workers who had differing levels of experience with a self-management support program. Themes were identified using interpretive descriptive analysis and then matched against domains used in implementation models to draw implications for successful practice change. Results: Three main themes emerged related to: (1) understandings of disease management within job roles; (2) requirements for putting self-management support into practice; and (3) challenges of coordination in disease management. Priority domains from implementation models were inner and outer health service settings. Conclusion: While staff training is required, practice change for care which takes account of both mental and physical health also requires changes in organisational frameworks.

Second language (L2) gains during study abroad have been related to several variables including length of stay (Llanes, 2011), language use (Martinsen, Baker, Dewey, Bown, & Johnson, 2010), and social network development (Isabelli- Garcia, 2006), among others. However, most studies have investigated only a few predictors in single study abroad programs. While these findings are helpful, larger scale studies are needed to better understand the variables that contribute to L2 gains across several different cultures and learner groups. The current study examines pre- dictors of L2 gain of more than 100 native English speakers who participated in study abroad in Mexico, Spain, France, Egypt, Russia, and China. Participants were asked to complete an ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview at the beginning and end of their study abroad program. Participants were then divided into "gainers" and "non-gainers," or those who did or did not make significant language gains from pre- to posttest. Their language gains from pre to posttest were compared to several predictors: personality (measured by the NEO Five-Factor Inventory), social networks (size, dispersion, density, etc.), intercultural sensitivity (measured by the Intercultural Development Inventory), amount of second language use, gender, and age. Results suggest that many students were able to make gains in language, in each of the programs, and that the strongest predictors of L2 gains were cultural sensitivity and social network variables.Key words: IDI, OPI, proficiency, social net- works, study abroadThe number of U.S. students participating in study abroad has increased steadily in recent years, nearly doubling since 2000 and exceeding 300,000 in 2012 (Institute of International Education, 2013, n.p.). Both prior to and throughout this same time period, the need for strong proficiency in a second language (L2) has become even more prevalent in business, health care, and foreign relations and across a range of other professions (O'Connell & Norwood, 2007). Thus, understanding how learners acquire an L2, particularly during study abroad, is perhaps more important than ever.Two primary goals of many study abroad programs are typically to help stu- dents develop and improve their proficiency in an L2 and to enhance their cultural un- derstanding.1 A large number of studies have investigated the variables that facilitate or impede L2 learning in the context of study abroad, focusing on such questions as "What is the ideal amount of time to spend on study abroad?" (Llanes & Serrano, 2011); "When is the ideal time in L2 development to participate in an immer- sion program?" (Davidson, 2010); "How much L2 use is needed in order to improve in L2 learning?" (Hernandez, 2010); and "Do variables such as the students' person- alities, number of friends acquired in the tar- get culture, or cultural sensitivity affect their L2 use on a study abroad program?" (Dewey, Belnap, & Hillstrom, 2013); however, many questions still remain (see Llanes, 2011, for a discussion of these issues).Most of these studies examined only one variable or one aspect of L2 acquisition during study abroad; moreover, these stud- ies often lacked sufficiently robust numbers of participants for many conclusions to be drawn. Consequently, it is difficult to deter- mine which of the previously examined variables has the most important influence on L2 acquisition during study abroad or how all those variables interact. As King- inger (2009) has noted, "In the case of pro- ficiency ... whereas work with small groups of participants typically does not generate robust effects, large-scale studies ... have linked proficiency with study abroad throughout the history of the research" (p, 209),2 but much can still be learned about which variables influence proficiency development during study abroad. The pur- pose of this study, therefore, was to examine a larger number of participants from multi- ple programs abroad and to consider simul- taneously several variables that might influence students' linguistic development while abroad. …

A common predictor of language gains during study abroad (SA) is amount of language use. Yet little attention has been given to determining what factors influence the extent of language use while abroad. Studies in this area have mainly been case studies of learners in single locations. In this larger study, we seek to determine variables connected with language use by examining 118 learners studying abroad in Madrid, Merida (Mexico), Paris, Moscow, Nanjing, or Cairo. These learners reported their second language (L2) use over a 1-week period during their stay. Significant predictors of reported L2 use include SA program, age, pre-departure language proficiency, number of native speaker friends, gender, and personality.

This study examined whether learning context (ESL versus EFL) and language learning aptitude (high versus low) affected the use of second-language pronunciation strategies and pronunciation achievement. The top and lowest scorers (n = 60) on the Pimsleur Language Learning Aptitude Battery (PLAB) Test were asked to complete a pronunciation strategies inventory and participate in pronunciation proficiency tests at the beginning and end of a 10-week speaking class. Pronunciation scores in global foreign accent, fluency, comprehensibility, and accuracy were compared with both overall and individual section PLAB scores and pronunciation strategies use. Results indicated that neither types of learning strategies nor degree of language gains differed over EFL and ESL contexts. However, participants’ post-test pronunciation scores in global foreign accent, fluency, and accuracy were positively correlated with auditory aptitude and motivation, while comprehensibility post-test scores were correlated with pronunciation strategies use. The findings for this study suggest that learning context plays a limited role in strategy use and that aptitude affects pronunciation accuracy and pronunciation strategies affect comprehensibility. Thus, strategy and aptitude affect different aspects of pronunciation.

This study examined the lived experience of students participating in foreign language houses to improve their skills in Russian, French, or Japanese. American students residing in apartments with other language learners and a native-speaking resident facilitator were required to speak with one another exclusively in the target language and participate in activities such as preparing and eating dinner together. Data sources for the study included interviews, observations, and video recordings. The data, which were analyzed qualitatively, revealed that the central experience of living in the foreign language house was the creation of a livable community and that use of the L2 was a secondary priority. A number of factors influence the livability of a given community, including the size of the community, proficiency levels, and participants' investments in and identification with the community. Participants forged alternate identities in relationship to their new communities. Based on these findings, the st...

Mammals experience permanent impairments from hair cell (HC) losses, but birds and other non-mammals quickly recover hearing and balance senses after supporting cells (SCs) give rise to replacement HCs. Avian HC epithelia express little or no E-cadherin, and differences in the thickness of F-actin belts at SC junctions strongly correlate with different species' capacities for HC replacement, so we investigated junctional cadherins in human and murine ears. We found strong E-cadherin expression at SC–SC junctions that increases more than sixfold postnatally in mice. When we cultured utricles from young mice with γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs), striolar SCs completely internalized their E-cadherin, without affecting N-cadherin.HesandHeyexpression also decreased and the SCs began to expressAtoh1. After 48 h, those SCs expressed myosins VI and VIIA, and by 72 h, they developed hair bundles. However, some scattered striolar SCs retained E-cadherin and the SC phenotype. In extrastriolar regions, the vast majority of SCs also retained E-cadherin and failed to convert into HCs even after long GSI treatments. Microscopic measurements revealed that the junctions between extrastriolar SCs were more developed than those between striolar SCs. In GSI-treated utricles as old as P12, differentiated striolar SCs converted into HCs, but such responses declined with age and ceased by P16. Thus, temporal and spatial differences in postnatal SC-to-HC phenotype conversion capacity are linked to the structural attributes of E-cadherin containing SC junctions in mammals, which differ substantially from their counterparts in non-mammalian vertebrates that readily recover from hearing and balance deficits through hair cell regeneration.

Many colleges and universities in North America employ foreign language housing (FLH) as a means of exposing students to a second language (L2). However, little research examines the effectiveness of these houses on L2 use and gains. The purpose of this study was to examine whether L2 learners living in FLH use the L2 more and whether they make greater language gains than classroom-only learners. This study also evaluated what kinds of tasks predict greater gains and whether such gains are related to the L2 studied. FLH learners of French, German, Russian, and Japanese were matched with classroom-only learners based on age, gender, and proficiency. Both groups took a preprogram and postprogram oral proficiency interview (OPI) and reported their L2 use. Results revealed that FLH students used the L2 more and made greater language gains than classroom-only learners, although differences across the 2 groups were related to the L2 they were studying. In addition, results revealed that using the L2 in particular tasks predicted greater language gains. Such findings suggest that FLH, as portrayed in the current study, with students grouped by language and 1 native speaker per apartment, provides an environment in which students can improve L2 oral proficiency.

This study explores how second language (L2) learners perceive indirect (hedging or indirect speech acts) and direct written teacher feedback. Though research suggests that indirect speech acts may be more difficult to interpret than direct speech acts ( Champagne, 2001 , Holtgraves, 1999 ), using indirect speech acts is often encouraged in the learning process, with the idea that it helps students discover their own errors ( Ferris, 2007 , Riley and Mackiewitz, 2003 ;). However, it may not be effective with L2 learners who often need more explicit instruction to understand how to revise their writing ( Ferris, 2002 ). To examine the effect of different directness types on identifying requested corrections, native and non-native English-speaking university students were given two essays that contained written teacher feedback that differed in its directness. Participants were asked to identify if the teacher comments were praise or criticism. Two response times and accuracy scores were calculated: one, as participants determined if the teacher comment requested a correction and two, as participants made corrections. After each essay, participants answered additional questions regarding the written teacher feedback. Results show that directness type affected how quickly and accurately participants responded to positive and negative teacher feedback.

This study examined the effect of second language (L2) age of acquisition and amount of experience on the production of word-final stop consonant voicing by adult native Korean learners of English. Thirty learners, who differed in amount of L2 experience and age of L2 exposure, and 10 native English speakers produced 8 English monosyllabic words ending in voiced and voiceless stops. These productions were presented to 10 English listeners for perceptual judgment and subjected to acoustic analyses to determine how well learners produced vowel duration and closure (stop gap) duration, two cues to stop consonant voicing. Results revealed that even learners with 10 years of L2 experience did not always produce stop consonant voicing accurately, that learners' age of acquisition influenced their production of both cues, that vowel duration was easier to learn than closure duration, and that English listeners used both these cues in their judgments of production accuracy.

Although peer review has been shown to be beneficial in many writing classrooms, the benefits of peer review to the reviewer, or the student giving feedback, has not been thoroughly investigated in second-language writing research. The purpose of this study is to determine which is more beneficial to improving student writing: giving or receiving peer feedback. The study was conducted at an intensive English institute with ninety-one students in nine writing classes at two proficiency levels. The ‘‘givers’’ reviewed anonymous papers but received no peer feedback over the course of the semester, while the ‘‘receivers’’ received feedback but did not review other students’ writing. An analysis in the gains in writing ability measured from writing samples collected at the beginning and end of the semester indicated that the givers, who focused solely on reviewing peers’ writing, made more significant gains in their own writing over the course of the semester than did the receivers, who focused solely on how to use peer feedback. Results also indicated that givers at the lower proficiency level made more gains than those at higher proficiency levels and that slightly more gains were observed on global than local aspects of writing.

This study examines whether two factors, region of origin (i.e., being from either Utah, Western states, or non-Western states) and amount of experience for those not native to Utah (having less than one, more than one but less than five, or over five years living in Utah), influence how well listeners are able to distinguish between Utah and non-Utah speakers and what phonetic characteristics they use to do so. The results suggest that the more similar the listener's dialect is to Utah English, the better his or her ability to identify Utah speakers. Moreover, it was found that listeners from Utah use less stereotypical characteristics of Utah English for identifying Utahns from non-Utahns; those from the Western United States and other locations use more. This study demonstrates that listeners with more experience with Utah English are better able to identify Utah speakers than those with less experience. These findings are also examined in light of stereotypical perceptions of both Utah English and the phonetic characteristics examined in this study.

Most research in second language (L2) writing has focused on students’ perceptions more than teachers’ self-assessment of teacher-written feedback. This study's purpose was to investigate: (1) how much local and global written feedback teachers give, (2) how their self-assessments and students’ perceptions of this feedback coordinate, and (3) how well teachers’ self-assessments match their actual performance. Teachers and students in an intensive English as a second language (ESL) program were surveyed about their perceptions of teacher-written feedback on compositions. These surveys were compared to teachers’ actual written feedback. Results indicated that teachers’ self-assessments and student perceptions of teacher-written feedback coordinated well, although students perceived receiving more feedback than teachers perceived giving. The coordination between teachers’ self-assessment and actual performance was generally not as strong, indicating that teachers may not be completely aware of the amount of local and global feedback they give on first and later drafts. Moreover, unlike what they perceived themselves doing, teachers provided more feedback on local than global issues throughout the writing process. These findings are discussed in light of how teachers’ training affected their perception (but perhaps not performance) of providing written feedback and underscore the need for examining teachers’ self-assessments of their written feedback.

This study examined second language (L2) experience effects on children's acquisition of fluency-(speech rate, frequency, and duration of pausing) and prosody-based (stress timing, peak alignment) suprasegmentals. Twenty Korean children (age of arrival in the United States = 7–11 years, length of US residence = 1 vs. 11 years) and 20 age-matched English monolinguals produced six English sentences in a sentence repetition task. Acoustic analyses and listener judgments were used to determine how accurately the suprasegmentals were produced and to what extent they contributed to foreign accent. Results indicated that the children with 11 years of US residence, unlike those with 1 year of US residence, produced all but one (speech rate) suprasegmentals natively. Overall, findings revealed similarities between L2 segmental and suprasegmental learning.