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Human factors research can play an important role in the successful design of infrastructure to support future mobility. Through engaging users and stakeholders early in the design process we can gain insights before the physical environments are built. This paper presents data from a truly novel application of Virtual Reality (VR), where user experience and wayfinding were evaluated within an emerging future transport infrastructure to support urban air mobility (UAM) - the urban airport (aka vertiports). Urban airports are located in city centres where drones or 'flying cars' would land and take off from. Previous quantitative studies have investigated passenger experience in traditional airports using field observation and surveys, but this paper is the first to present qualitative research on user experience in this emerging mobility infrastructure using an immersive VR environment. Twenty participants completed a series of six scenarios aimed at understanding customer 'exciters' and 'pain points' within an urban airport. Results and recommendations from this empirical research will help inform the design of all future mobility infrastructure solutions, through improving user experience before the infrastructure is physically deployed. Finally, this paper highlights the benefits of engaging users at an early stage of the design process to ensure that future transport infrastructure will be accessible, easy to navigate and a pleasure to use.

Conditionally automated driving systems (SAE level 3) are able to process the lateral and longitudinal control of a vehicle and warn the driver of the status of the system and ongoing operations. The driver must monitor the system and resume control if prompted to. Previous research in the realm of automated driving explored how in-vehicle information should be presented to optimise drivers’ trust in the system (Wintersberger et al, 2020). For instance, conveying the status and actions of the system contributes to transparency and support adequate trust in the system (Carsten & Martens, 2019). Yet, little is known on the consequences of failing to provide reliable information on the vehicle status and operations on trust. This is particularly salient in the case of silent failures, whereby the system fails to notify the driver of its limit and incapacity to operate reliably (Louw et al., 2019). This lack of empirical evidence is surprising as automation failures are likely to affect drivers’ trust in the system (Payre et al., 2015; 2017), therefore leading to disuse (e.g. no use), misuse (e.g. unsafe operation as reported by the National Transportation Safety Board Tesla crash report, 2017) or abuse (e.g. take advantage of the limits) of such system (Parasuraman, 1997). Past work has stressed that the subjective level of trust of users should be aligned with the capabilities of the automation to mitigate the undesirable effect of overtrust (i.e. using the automated system despite its unreliability) and distrust (i.e. not using the system although it is reliable; Khastgir et al., 2018). This process has been identified as trust calibration (Lee & See, 2004). Even though a wealth of studies has shown what and how information should be presented to support trust calibration, little research attention has been devoted to understand if, how and when failures affect individuals’ trust in the automated system and subsequent impact on driving performance. Addressing this research gap, the present study combines a cyber security and human factors approach to investigate the effect of the type of failure (silent vs. explicit) and its timing (early vs. late during the journey) on individuals’ trust, attitudes and safety. From the cyber security perspective, a threat analysis of in-vehicle digital displays was conducted. This led to a series of use cases being developed when possible malfunction or intrusion (e.g. hacking) would occur. These use cases were developed in a driver-in-the-loop simulator where participants’ responses (N = 37) with respect to trust in the automation, driving performance, and safety were collected. Results from this experiment are discussed in the context of road safety, attitudes and driver behaviour (e.g. manual handover, acceptance and trust).

The aim of this paper is to examine the effect of explicit (i.e., ransomware) and silent (i.e., no turn signals) automation failures on drivers’ reported levels of trust and perception of risk. In a driving simulator study, 38 participants rode in a conditionally automated vehicle in built-up areas and motorways. They all experienced both failures. Not only levels of trust decreased after experiencing the failures, especially after the explicit one, but also some of the scores were low. This could mean cyber-attacks lead to distrust in automated driving, rather than merely decreasing levels of trust. Participants also seemed to differentiate connected driving from automated driving in terms of perception of risk. These results are discussed in the context of cyber intrusions as well as long- and short-term trust.

Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). We examined the interactive effects of task load and music tempo on cognition, affect, cardiac response, and safety-relevant behaviour during simulated driving. Using a counterbalanced, within-subjects design, participants (N = 46) were exposed to fast-, slow-, and no-music conditions at high and low loads in a high-grade simulator. Task load had the most salient effect across a broad swath of variables. For core affect, the Load × Music Condition interaction showed that, under high load, affective arousal scores were higher in the fast-tempo condition vs. slow. A main effect of tempo emerged for the HRV index of SDNN, with fast-tempo music eliciting lower scores than both slow- and no-music conditions. Behavioural data showed a main effect of tempo for risk ratings, with fast-tempo music eliciting the highest scores for a traffic-light trigger. Our findings indicate that drivers in high-load, urban environments should exercise caution in their use of fast-tempo music. Practitioner summary: We examined the interactive effects of task load and music tempo in simulated driving (urban and highway). Cognition, mood, cardiac response, and driving behaviour were assessed. Participants exhibited more risky behaviours in response to fast-tempo music. Drivers should exercise caution in their use of up-tempo music in urban settings. UKRI Economic and Social Research Council grant awarded to the first and last authors (ES/R005559/1). The study was also supported by a research grant from the Direct Line Group (UK). Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC; grant no. ES/R005559/1).

This paper discusses the design and evaluation of connected and cooperative vehicle in-vehicle sign designs displayed on a mobile phone: Emergency Electronic Brake Lights (EEBL), Emergency Vehicle Warning (EVW), Traffic Condition Warning, and Road Works Warning. Appropriateness and comprehension of each design alternative were assessed using quantitative (i.e. Likert scales) and qualitative (i.e. open-ended questions) methods. Forty-four participants took part in the study and were shown twelve dashboard camera videos presenting a total of eleven designs alternatives, displayed with or without a legend. Despite their appropriateness, EEBL and EVW signs displayed with a legend were better comprehended and less ambiguous than those displayed without a legend. Moreover, displaying a legend below the signs to warn drivers of an emergency braking ahead was efficient in low visibility condition and could potentially increase safety in critical situations.

© 2021 The Authors. The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of musical characteristics (i.e., presence of lyrics and loudness) in the context of simulated urban driving. Previous work has seldom isolated musical characteristics and examined these both singularly and interactively. We investigated the potentially distracting effects of processing lyrics through exposing young drivers to the same piece of music with/without lyrics and at different sound intensities (60 dBA [soft] and 75 dBA [loud]) using a counterbalanced, within-subjects design (N = 34; Mage = 22.2 years, SD = 2.0 years). Six simulator conditions were included that comprised low-intensity music with/without lyrics, high-intensity music with/without lyrics, plus two controls – ambient in-car noise and spoken lyrics. Between-subjects variables of driving style (defensive vs. assertive) and sex (women vs. men) were explored. A key finding was that the no lyrics/soft condition yielded lower affective arousal scores when compared to the other music conditions. There was no main effect of condition for HRV data (SDNN and RMSSD). Exploratory analyses showed that, for assertive drivers, NASA-TLX Performance scores were lower in the no lyrics/soft condition compared to the lyrics/loud condition. Moreover, women exhibited higher mean heart rate than men in the presence of lyrics. Although some differences emerged in subjective outcomes, these were not replicated in HRV, which was used as an objective index of emotionality. Drivers should consider the use of soft, non-lyrical music to optimise their affective state during urban driving. UKRI Economic and Social Research Council grant (ES/R005559/ 1); Direct Line Group (UK).

Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/1463922X.2021.2009933. The datafile associated with this study can be accessed at https://figshare.com/s/8337759d80b18fb871b6. Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Underpinned by pragmatism and symbolic interactionism, an inductive content analysis was conducted to assess driving experiences under a variety of music conditions. Many quantitative studies have addressed the effects of music on drivers, but there has been a conspicuous dearth of qualitative research to provide a more nuanced understanding of music-related phenomena. Data collection took place over three simulated driving studies, each with different tasks/participants (Study 1 – n = 34, Study 2 – n = 46, and Study 3 – n = 27). The inductive content analysis was conducted by two members of the research team and a peer debriefing was conducted by a third. Findings show that music can have a range of affective, behavioural and cognitive effects (both positive and negative), that are moderated by the driving environment (i.e. urban vs. highway) and aspects of the musical stimulus (i.e. inclusion/non-inclusion of lyrics, loudness and tempo). Participants were mindful of the implications of in-vehicle music vis-à-vis the safety–performance–pleasure trade-off. The analysis suggested a perceived beneficial effect of music and consequent contribution to driving style/safety-related performance. Younger drivers’ apparent reliance on music as a means by which to regulate their emotion highlights an education need in terms of optimising selections. UKRI Economic and Social Research Council grant (ES/R005559/1); Direct Line Group (UK).

In the future, automated shuttles may provide on-demand transport and serve as feeders to public transport systems. However, automated shuttles will only become widely used if they are accepted by the public. This paper presents results of an interview study with 30 users of an automated shuttle on the EUREF (Europaisches Energieforum) campus in Berlin-Schoneberg to obtain in-depth understanding of the acceptance of automated shuttles as feeders to public transport systems. From the interviews, we identified 340 quotes, which were classified into six categories: (1) expectations about the capabilities of the automated shuttle (10% of quotes), (2) evaluation of the shuttle performance (10%), (3) service quality (34%), (4) risk and benefit perception (15%), (5) travel purpose (25%), and (6) trust (6%). The quotes indicated that respondents had idealized expectations about the technological capabilities of the automated shuttle, which may have been fostered by the media. Respondents were positive about the idea of using automated shuttles as feeders to public transport systems but did not believe that the shuttle will allow them to engage in cognitively demanding activities such as working. Furthermore, 20% of respondents indicated to prefer supervision of shuttles via an external control room or steward on board over unsupervised automation. In conclusion, even though the current automated shuttle did not live up to the respondents’ expectations, respondents still perceived automated shuttles as a viable option for feeders to public transport systems.

This study evaluated the effectiveness and acceptance of four connected vehicle features, i.e. Emergency Electronic Brake Lights (EEBL), Emergency Vehicle Warning (EVW), Roadworks warning (RWW) and Traffic Condition Warning (TCW) which were presented via a mobile phone mounted near the line of sight. A driving simulator study was conducted in which 36 drivers were exposed to different levels of urgent and critical situations. They involved the approach of an emergency vehicle, an emergency braking of a lead vehicle, a roadworks area and a congested section of a road. All these events took place in a simulated motorway scenario. In the EEBL event, the vehicle braking ahead with the brake lights on was either visible or not (between-subjects). Whereas no effect of RWW and TCW were observed on driving behaviour, results showed that drivers who were shown the EEBL warnings had shorter braking and decelerating response times, and a slower mean speed during the events, and this was independent of brake lights visibility. The EVW resulted in participants giving way to the emergency vehicle (i.e. staying on the slow lane instead of overtaking slower vehicles) more frequently than those who did not receive the warning. The mobile phone app was accepted and considered usable. Locating the mobile phone in different locations within the drivers' line of sight (i.e. dashboard, instrument cluster) did not impact significantly neither drivers' attitudes nor behaviour. Additional in-vehicle information systems could enhance safety and allow emergency vehicles to get faster to their destination.

If previous research studied acceptability of partially or highly automated driving, few of them focused on fully automated driving (FAD), including the ability to master longitudinal control, lateral control and maneuvers. The present study analyzes a priori acceptability, attitudes, personality traits and intention to use a fully automated vehicle. 421 French drivers (153 males, M = 40.2 years, age range 19-73) answered an online questionnaire. 68.1% Of the sample a priori accepted FAD. Predictors of intention to use a fully automated car (R2 =.671) were mainly attitudes, contextual acceptability and interest in impaired driving (i.e. the two components of FAD acceptability), followed by driving related sensation seeking, finally gender. FAD preferred use cases were on highways, in traffic congestion and for automatic parking. Furthermore, some drivers reported interest in impaired driving misuses, despite awareness of their responsibility for both the vehicle and the driving. These results are discussed regarding previous knowledge about acceptability of advanced driving assistance systems and consequences for the use of fully automated cars.

Automated driving (AD) introduces new skills needs for drivers to handle manual control recovery (MCR). In the scope of traffic safety, such skills should be investigated before this technology is available on public roads, especially in critical situations such as emergencies. The aim of the present study is to examine to what extend lack of training and in-vehicle task performance may impair MCR in a fully automated car. This study explores AD in a driving simulator, focusing on emergency MCR performance and trust in this system. 113 participants were involved. Training (simple vs. elaborated) and in-vehicle task performance (with vs. without) were manipulated. The MCR method (hands and feet used simultaneously or not) and its impact on response time and the number of pedals interactions were also examined. Training improved response time and decreased the number of interactions with the pedals. Moreover, the elaborated training group had fewer interactions with the pedals in the second and last system failure than in the first one. Performing an in-vehicle task slowed response time but did not significantly affect the number of interactions with the pedals. Response time was faster when hands and feet were used simultaneously in MCR. Elaborated training influenced trust in AD. Training drivers, using practice of the system and explaining its underlying logic, contributed to improve the human-automation performance. These results suggest the benefits of a training policy to enhance MCR performance and optimize trust in the system.

Objective: An experiment was performed in a driving simulator to investigate the impacts of practice, trust, and interaction on manual control recovery (MCR) when employing fully automated driving (FAD). Background: To increase the use of partially or highly automated driving efficiency and to improve safety, some studies have addressed trust in driving automation and training, but few studies have focused on FAD. FAD is an autonomous system that has full control of a vehicle without any need for intervention by the driver. Method: A total of 69 drivers with a valid license practiced with FAD. They were distributed evenly across two conditions: simple practice and elaborate practice. Results: When examining emergency MCR, a correlation was found between trust and reaction time in the simple practice group (i.e., higher trust meant a longer reaction time), but not in the elaborate practice group. This result indicated that to mitigate the negative impact of overtrust on reaction time, more appropriate practice may be needed. Conclusions: Drivers should be trained in how the automated device works so as to improve MCR performance in case of an emergency. Application: The practice format used in this study could be used for the first interaction with an FAD car when acquiring such a vehicle.

To date, automotive design and research is heavily biased towards the driver. However, with the rapid advance of vehicle automation, the driving task will increasingly being taken over by a machine. Automation by itself, however, will not be able to tackle the transport challenges we are facing and the need for shared mobility is now widely recognized. Future mobility solutions are therefore expected to consist of Shared and Automated Vehicles (SAV). This means that the passenger experience will take center stage in the design of future road vehicles. Whereas at first sight this may not appear to be different to the experience in other modes of transport, automation and shared mobility introduce different psychological, physical and physiological challenges. These are related to the fact that the occupant is no longer in control, has to put his or her life in the hands of a computer, while at the same time expects such future vehicles to render travel time more efficient or pleasurable and engage in so-called non-driving related tasks. Taking inspiration from work conducted in the field of aircraft passenger comfort experience, we discuss major comfort factors in the context of SAV and highlight both similarities and differences between transport modes. We present a human centered design framework to assist both the research agenda and the development of safe, usable, comfortable, and desirable future mobility solutions.

A range of terms and concepts referring to autonomous vehicle technologies are used both in the scientific and grey literature. Different, often overlapping, concepts and adjectives are used to des...

Fully automated cars could possibly be on the road in the decades to come. They will allow drivers to be driven by an informatics system in their own vehicle. Such an innovation could lead to a revolution that would change the driver’s status and its activities during the trips, but also the infrastructure, freight, some professions, etc. Nowadays, these vehicles are not available for sale yet, and it is difficult to forecast accurately when they will be, and also what their features will be. Considering this, one of the aims of the present thesis is to examine to what extend fully automated driving will be accepted. Even though the driver is driven by its vehicle, he could have to resume manual control in different circumstances. Indeed, this maneuver could be performed in an emergency or in an anticipated situation while he could be engaged in a non-driving related activity. Performing a manual control recovery could be more or less difficult according to the situation and the experience with the fully automated system. The way this maneuver could be learned by drivers has been examined, testing the impact of different kinds of training on performance and safety (response time and control recovery quality). Acceptability, trust, drivers’ attitudes, intentions to use the fully automated driving system and the impact of these variables on behaviors inside the vehicle have been assessed.Three empirical studies have been realized. The first one, based on two pilot studies, is an online survey (N= 421, 36% of males) assessing attitudes toward fully automated driving, a priori acceptability and intentions of use. This specific driving could require new skills to perform manual control recovery. Hence, learning has become an important point of the second study problematic. This second study (N= 69, 54% of males) has been conducted in a driving simulator on a highway. Attitudes have been measured before and after interacting with this technology. Drivers’ behaviors during the interaction with the fully automated driving system have also been examined. The effect of two kinds of practice (simple vs. elaborated) of fully automated driving on manual control recovery (response times) have been analyzed. Several manual control recovery situations have been tested: some of them were unexpected and urgent, some of them were anticipated. Results showed that the effect of overtrust, increasing response time in the emergency situation, could be moderated for drivers who followed the elaborated practice condition. The aims of the third study are to increase the knowledge one the way to learn how to use fully automated driving, most notably manual control recovery, and to examine the impact of a non-driving related task performing on that maneuver in an emergency situation. Participants (N= 113, 49% of males) have been distributed among two training conditions (simple vs. elaborate), and among two non-driving related task performing conditions (with vs. without). The simple training condition involves a short practice of fully automated driving. The elaborate training condition involves the explanation of the underlying features of the system with a text, a demonstration video, and a practice with more interactions than the simple training condition. After a 20 minutes run, trust, acceptability, attitudes and intentions to use the system have been measured. Elaborated training improved emergency manual control recovery in case of emergency (shorter response times, and greater pedal-use accuracy). Performing a non-driving related task increased response times, but did not significantly impact pedal-use accuracy. Eventually, elaborated training contributed to moderate overtrust in the system.Results of these three studies are discussed. The training methods that have been developed could help training the new users of that technology. Driver status in this kind of vehicle, as well as the nature of the driving task, are debated. Finally, the limits of the studies and perspectives for future research in the field are examined.; Des voitures complètement automatisées pourraient circuler sur les routes dans les décennies à venir. Elles permettraient aux automobilistes d’être conduits dans leur véhicule par un système informatique. Une telle innovation pourrait engendrer une révolution qui affecterait le rôle du conducteur et ses activités pendant le trajet, mais aussi l’infrastructure, le transport de marchandises, certaines professions, etc. Actuellement, ces véhicules ne sont pas encore accessibles au grand public, et il demeure difficile de prédire précisément quand cela se produira, et quelles seront leurs caractéristiques techniques finales. Dans ce contexte, un des objectifs de cette thèse a été d’étudier dans quelle mesure la conduite complètement automatisée sera acceptée. Bien que l’automobiliste soit conduit par son véhicule, il pourrait être amené à en reprendre le contrôle manuel dans différentes circonstances. En effet, cette manoeuvre pourrait être effectuée en situation d’urgence ou de manière anticipée par le conducteur alors qu’il pourrait être engagé dans une autre activité que la conduite. La réalisation de cette reprise de contrôle manuel pourrait être plus ou moins difficile selon la situation et l’expérience d’interactions avec le système complètement automatisé. Nous avons examiné la manière dont cette manoeuvre pourrait être apprise par des conducteurs, en testant l’effet de différentes formes d’entrainement sur la performance et la sécurité (temps de réponse et qualité de la reprise de contrôle). Nous avons mesuré l’acceptabilité et la confiance, les attitudes des conducteurs, les intentions d’utilisation du système de conduite complètement automatisée et l’impact de ces variables sur les comportements dans le véhicule.Trois études empiriques ont été réalisées. La première, adossée à deux études pilotes, est une étude en ligne (N= 421, 36% d’hommes) évaluant les attitudes envers la conduite complètement automatisée, l’acceptabilité a priori et les intentions d’utilisation. Cette conduite pourrait nécessiter de nouvelles compétences concernant la reprise de contrôle manuel. Ainsi, la question de l’apprentissage a été au coeur de la problématique de la deuxième étude. Celle-ci (N= 69, 54% d’hommes) a été réalisée dans un simulateur de conduite sur autoroute. Les attitudes ont été mesurées avant et après interaction avec cette technologie. Les comportements des conducteurs pendant l’interaction avec le système de conduite complètement automatisée ont également été examinés. Les effets de deux types de pratique (simple vs. élaborée) de la conduite complètement automatisée sur la reprise de contrôle manuel (temps de réponse) ont été analysés. Plusieurs situations de reprises de contrôle ont été testées : certaines étaient urgentes et inattendues, d’autres étaient anticipées. Nous avons observé que l’effet de la surconfiance, qui augmente les temps de réponse en situation d’urgence, pouvait être modéré par une pratique élaborée. Les objectifs de la troisième étude étaient d’approfondir les connaissances sur la manière d’apprendre à utiliser la conduite complètement automatisée, notamment pour reprendre le contrôle manuel, et d’examiner l’impact de la réalisation d’une tâche non reliée à la conduite sur cette manoeuvre en situation d’urgence. Les participants (N= 113, 49% d’hommes) ont été répartis selon deux conditions d’entrainement (simple vs. élaboré), et selon qu’il y ait eu ou non réalisation de tâches non reliées à la conduite pendant le trajet. La condition entrainement simple consistait en une pratique succincte de la conduite complètement automatisée. La condition entrainement élaboré comprenait une partie théorique, une vidéo de démonstration, ainsi qu’une pratique comprenant davantage d’interactions avec le système de conduite complètement automatisée. Après avoir parcouru un trajet pendant une vingtaine de minutes, la confiance, l’acceptabilité, les attitudes et les intentions d’utilisation ont été mesurées. L’entrainement élaboré a amélioré la performance de reprise de contrôle manuel en situation d’urgence (temps de réponse plus courts et plus grande précision de l’utilisation des pédales). La réalisation d’une tâche non reliée à la conduite a allongé les temps de réponse, mais n’a pas eu d’effet sur la précision de l’utilisation des pédales. Enfin, l’entrainement élaboré a contribué à atténuer le phénomène de surconfiance dans le système.Les résultats de ces trois études sont discutés. Les méthodes d’entrainement que nous avons développées pourraient servir à former les nouveaux utilisateurs de cette technologie. Le rôle du conducteur dans ce type de véhicule et la nature de la tâche de conduite sont questionnés. Le degré de supervision exercé sur le système deviendrait secondaire par rapport à la réalisation d’une autre tâche non reliée à la conduite. Enfin, les limites de nos études et les perspectives pour les recherches à venir dans le domaine sont examinées.