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Background: Urinary acidification with ammonium chloride (AC) for urolith dissolution is a common treatment for goats with urolithiasis. Studies have reported increased fractional excretion of calcium (FECa) following AC administration, which could increase calcium-based urolithiasis. D,L methionine (MET) may result in similar acidification with less calcium excretion., Objective: To compare the effects of orally administered MET and AC on urine and blood pH, FECa, and blood HCO3- concentrations in male goats., Methods: Prospective, randomized, crossover study. 12 healthy, 5-to-6-month-old Boer-cross wethers were administered 200 mg/kg of AC or MET orally for 14 days with a 7-day washout period between trials. Venous blood and urine samples were collected every 2 days. The effects of treatment and treatment day on urine and blood pH, HCO3-, and FECa were assessed using linear mixed models., Results: Ammonium chloride and MET lowered least squares means (LSM) urine pH on day 6 (LSM, 7.49; 95% CI, 6.44 to 8.54), 8 (LSM, 7.78; 95% CI, 6.73 to 8.83), and 10 (LSM, 7.53; 95% CI, 6.49 to 8.58) when compared to day 0 (LSM, 8.23; 95% CI, 7.18 to 9.28). Some goats' urine indicated acidification (pH < 7.0) in the first phase of the trial; however, for the entire trial, a significant treatment effect was not detected on urine pH, blood pH, blood HCO3- or log10 FECa., Clinical Relevance: Ammonium chloride and MET acidified urine of some goats. Dietary cation-anion difference should be considered when treating healthy goats to acidify their urine.

Objective: To assess the use of a standing position during abdominal point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination when evaluating dogs for peritoneal effusion., Design: Randomized prospective study over 17 months., Setting: Single-center, university veterinary teaching hospital., Animals: Thirty dogs presenting for acute abdominal disease. Eligibility included suspicion for free peritoneal effusion and the ability to stand., Interventions: Dogs underwent standing abdominal POCUS, right lateral abdominal POCUS, and a full abdominal ultrasound. We originally had nothing listed. It now includes all three ultrasound evaluations that were performed for each patient., Measurements and Main Results: Patients underwent both a right lateral and standing abdominal POCUS via a previously described abdominal focused assessment with sonography for trauma (A-FASTrl and A-FASTs, respectively) technique in a randomized and sequential order followed by a full abdominal ultrasound (AUS-full). The A-FASTs examination included a right flank location in addition to the following standard views: subxiphoid, left flank, urinary bladder, and umbilicus. Five-second cine loops were obtained at each location for each examination and reviewed in the order they were obtained. Locations for both A-FAST exams were interrogated in the same order every time. The cine loops were scored for the degree of peritoneal effusion based on a previously published abdominal fluid scoring system by a board-certified radiologist, radiology resident, and radiology intern. The overall abdominal fluid score (AFS) was compared to a subjective full abdominal ultrasound score given by a board-certified radiologist. Six dogs had no peritoneal effusion, 13 had a small volume (AFS 1 or 2), and 11 had a moderate to large volume (AFS 3 or 4). Excellent agreement (intraclass correlation coefficient) was found between the A-FASTs and A-FASTrl techniques (0.95, 0.93, 0.94), good agreement between A-FASTs and AUS-full (0.80, 0.77, 0.82), and good agreement between A-FASTrl and AUS-full (0.80, 0.82, 0.84). The interobserver agreement was good (0.87) for the A-FASTs technique and excellent (0.91) for the A-FASTrl technique. Mean observer agreement score was excellent (0.94) when evaluating A-FASTrl to A-FASTs, good (0.86) when evaluating A-FASTs to AUS-full, and good (0.87) when evaluating A-FASTrl to AUS-full., Conclusion: Performing a standing abdominal POCUS examination may be a valid option for identifying and quantifying peritoneal effusion in situations when a more traditional right lateral approach cannot be performed., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2023.)

Introduction: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a novel screw type on stiffness and failure characteristics of a tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) construct under cyclic loading conditions. The authors hypothesized that bone-screw-fasteners (BSF) would result in superior biomechanical stability compared with locking buttress screws (LBS)., Materials and Methods: Twelve pairs of canine cadaveric pelvic limbs were included in this ex vivo biomechanical study. A TPLO was performed using a 3.5mm locking TPLO plate and stabilized using either LBS or BSF. Cyclic loading was performed for 30,000 cycles at 4Hz with a peak-load of 1000N (50N valley). The cyclic test was then continued by stepwise incremental increase of peak-load at a rate of 75N per 500 cycles until failure., Results: Cycles to failure for LBS (44,260 ± 5,770) and BSF (41,540 ± 7,686) were not significantly different ( p  = 0.36). Maximum force for LBS (3,134 ± 797N) and BSF (2,940 ± 831N) was not significantly different either ( p  = 0.58). Dynamic stiffness for LBS (1,778 ± 932 N/mm) and BSF (1,574 ± 677 N/mm) was not significantly different ( p  = 0.58)., Discussion: Stabilization of the TPLO with BSF provided similar biomechanical stability under cyclic axial loading conditions as the LBS. BSF may be an acceptable alternative to traditional locking screws for TPLO., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Kettleman, Jaffe, Wills, Dietz and Elder.)

Canine chronic ulcerative stomatitis (CCUS) is a spontaneously occurring, painful, and often debilitating condition of the oral cavity, with a suspected immune-mediated component. The response to pharmacological treatment is generally poor, thus the need to identify more effective medical therapies for this condition. This article describes a prospective clinical trial that was designed to evaluate the efficiency of a combination of cyclosporine and metronidazole in managing CCUS. The hypothesis was that a combination of cyclosporine and metronidazole would effectively minimize clinical signs associated with CCUS. Ten client-owned dogs with a biopsy-confirmed diagnosis consistent with CCUS were prescribed cyclosporine (5 mg/kg) for 1 week, followed by the addition of metronidazole (15-20 mg/kg), both administered orally once daily. The cyclosporine dosage interval was lengthened over time. Dogs were observed for a 6-month period and evaluated using a 32-point Canine Ulcerative Stomatitis Disease Activity Index (CUSDAI). Regular cyclosporine therapeutic drug monitoring was also conducted by the measurement of whole blood cyclosporine levels and the pharmacodynamic assessment of the T-cell expression of IL-2. The results demonstrated that a combination of cyclosporine and metronidazole was effective in minimizing the clinical signs of CCUS and in reducing CUSDAI scores. Neither blood cyclosporine levels nor the T-cell expression of IL-2 predicted improvement in clinical signs and CUSDAI scores, although there was a correlation between blood drug concentrations and the suppression of T-cell IL-2 expression. The evaluation of clinical signs and CUSDAI scores appears to be the most effective means of assessing response to therapy, and therapeutic drug level monitoring does not appear to be routinely indicated.

Limited data exist to predict the severity of pancreatitis in cats. In this retrospective case series, we reviewed the medical records of 45 cats with SP from June 2014 to June 2019. Case definition was based on an internist's review of clinopathologic data, Spec fPL concentration, and AUS findings. Information extracted from the medical records included signalment, history, physical examination findings, selected clinicopathological data (total bilirubin, glucose, ALP, ALT, and total calcium), Spec fPL concentration, AUS images/clips, length of hospitalization, and survival data. Hazard ratios were used to evaluate the association between clinicopathological data, the Spec fPL assay, AUS findings, and the length of hospitalization. Clinicopathological abnormalities, the Spec fPL, and AUS abnormalities were not statistically associated with the length of hospitalization. Despite a lack of statistical significance, the hazard ratios suggest the potential that an elevated total bilirubin (hazard ratio (HR): 1.19), hypocalcemia (HR: 1.49), and an elevated Spec fPL concentration (HR: 1.54) could be associated with prolonged hospitalization, although additional studies would be needed to verify this. Additionally, hazard ratios suggest that AUS evidence of concurrent gallbladder (HR: 1.61) and gastric abnormalities (HR: 1.36) could be associated with prolonged hospitalization.

Background: Evidence supporting the effectiveness of therapeutic protocols for nonassociative immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (na-IMHA) is weak., Hypothesis/objectives: Investigate the efficacy of various drugs in na-IMHA., Animals: Two hundred forty-two dogs., Methods: Multi-institutional retrospective study (2015-2020). Immunosuppressive effectiveness was determined by time to packed cell volume (PCV) stabilization and duration of hospitalization through analysis by mixed model linear regression. Occurrence of disease relapse, death, and antithrombotic effectiveness, were analyzed using mixed model logistic regression., Results: Use of corticosteroids vs a multi-agent protocol had no effect on time to PCV stabilization (P = .55), duration of hospitalization (P = .13), or case fatality (P = .06). A higher rate of relapse (P = .04; odds ratio: 3.97; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.06-14.8) was detected in dogs receiving corticosteroids (11.3%) during follow-up (median: 28.5 days, range: 0-1631 days) compared to multiple agents (3.1%) during follow up (median: 47.0 days, range: 0-1992 days). When comparing drug protocols, there was no effect on time to PCV stabilization (P = .31), relapse (P = .44), or case fatality (P = .08). Duration of hospitalization was longer, by 1.8 days (95% CI: 0.39-3.28 days), for the corticosteroid with mycophenolate mofetil group (P = .01) compared to corticosteroids alone. Use of clopidogrel vs multiple agents had no effect on development of thromboses (P ≥ .36)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Addition of a second immunosuppressive agent did not alter immediate outcome measures but might be associated with a reduction in relapse. Use of multiple antithrombotic agents did not reduce incidence of thrombosis., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Radial immunodiffusion (RID) is used to quantify IgG concentration in neonatal beef or dairy calf serum; variability has been noted that may affect the precision and accuracy of assay results. We determined the source, range, and homogeneity of variance in the results of a commercial bovine IgG RID assay (Triple J Farm). To estimate the variance in the precipitin ring diameter, we used 6 sera, measured 28 times across 8 plates and 4 lots, and 3 standards with known IgG concentrations, measured 75 times across 69 plates and 5 lots. The source of diameter variance was determined using variance partition coefficients for lot, plate, and repetition. We used 11 different methods to generate standard curves to convert RID precipitin ring diameters to IgG concentrations. The Levene test of homogeneity of variance (α = 0.1) was used to evaluate the equality of variance between the standards or serum precipitin ring diameters and calculated IgG concentrations. Lot and plate contributed minimally to the diameter variance. Precipitin ring diameters had equal variance. Calculated IgG concentrations for serum not requiring dilution had equal variance. A linear equation from aggregated standards, performed within the same day, had greater accuracy for the calculated IgG concentrations of the standards compared to other equation methods. Regardless of standard curve methodology or IgG concentration, variability inherent to the assay limits its clinical usefulness.

Background: The potential effects of glucocorticoid administration on rivaroxaban's anticoagulant bioactivity in dogs, and an appropriate rivaroxaban dosage regimen for dogs receiving glucocorticoid therapy are unknown., Hypothesis/objectives: The objective was to determine whether glucocorticoid administration influences the anticoagulant effects of rivaroxaban in healthy dogs. We hypothesized that administration of rivaroxaban and prednisone would reduce the anticoagulant intensity compared with rivaroxaban alone., Animals: Nine healthy dogs., Methods: Randomized, cross-over study. Dogs were administered prednisone (2 mg/kg, PO, q24h), rivaroxaban (1.5 mg/kg, PO, q24h), or prednisone and rivaroxaban, and the coagulation status was evaluated using prothrombin time (PT), and rivaroxaban-calibrated anti-Xa activity (RIVA, results were log 10 transformed for analysis), before drug administration and on days 2, 4, and 8. Linear mixed models and correlation were used to evaluate associations in variables (P < .05 was considered significant)., Results: There were no differences in RIVA results for the rivaroxaban and prednisone/rivaroxaban groups on day 8 (P = .599, median 87 [range 45-156] to 167 [56-333], respectively, median difference 90 ng/mL [95% CI:87.3-161.8]) There was a strong correlation between RIVA and PT results when days 2, 4, and 8 were combined (r = .846, P < .001), and increased during drug administration, day 2 (r = .810, P < .001), day 4 (r = .863, P < .001), and day 8 (r = .885, P < .001)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Clotting times in the PT correlate with rivaroxaban levels and may prove useful for drug monitoring. Prednisone administration had no apparent influence on the anticoagulant effects of rivaroxaban in healthy dogs, suggesting that combined therapy will not require dosage adjustments., (© 2022 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Enteric septicemia of catfish, which is caused by Edwardsiella ictaluri, is detrimental to farmed Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus. The hemin receptor HemR is involved in binding and uptake of heme into bacteria. Here, we explored pathological and ultrastructural changes in catfish fry that were immunized with a triple hemR mutant of E. ictaluri and challenged with wild-type E. ictaluri (EiWT) 28 d after immunization. Following immunization, pathological changes in the triple hemR-immunized fry were less severe compared to the EiWT-exposed control fry. Widely disseminated bacteria and severe necrosis in most organs, especially the kidney and spleen, were detected in both groups at days 4, 5, and 6. Multifocal granulomatous encephalitis with bacteria was seen in hemR-immunized fry at days 21 and 28 and in EiWT-exposed control fry at day 14. Phagocytic cells in the kidney and spleen of EiWT-exposed control fry contained more replicating bacteria compared to hemR-immunized fry. During the EiWT challenge of immunized fry, a robust immune response was observed in the triple hemR-immunized fry compared to the sham-vaccinated group. Many activated phagocytic cells were detected in the kidney and spleen with fragmented or no bacteria in the triple hemR-immunized fry. Our data suggested that virulence of triple hemR was lower and the onset of the lesions was delayed compared to EiWT. Additionally, triple hemR-immunized fry could mount an immune response and had milder lesions compared to the sham control after EiWT exposure., (© 2022 American Fisheries Society.)

Epidemiologists have adopted systems thinking as an approach to understanding why health conditions occur in animal populations beyond the knowledge of simple linear relationships. Beef production systems are complex adaptive systems and decisions and policies throughout the system can positively or negatively affect the health of cattle. Those decisions may occur far removed in time or place from the health event and may be logical in the context of other factors in the system. Causal loop diagrams and stock and flow models are tools for sharing and testing thoughts about the ways systems might behave., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A new species of Tricorythodes is described and illustrated based on nymphs from Colombia. Legs, mouthparts and other parts of the body were photographed through SEM and molecular characterization was performed by amplification of the COImt gene. Tricorythodes carare sp. nov. shows close affinities with T. serratus (Baumgardner vila), both sharing a similar coloration pattern and the presence of chalazae on femora. The new species can be distinguished from T. serratus and all the species of the genus by the following combination of characters: maxillary palp 3-segmented, with apical setae; dorsal surface of median and hind femora with a longitudinal row of 5 to 9 chalazae serrated in the apex, tarsal claws with 4 or 5 marginal denticles and with 13 submarginal denticles; posterior margin of the abdominal terga with serrated chalazae in the apex. SEM images and distance analysis of the partial sequences of the COI gene were useful to discriminate the new species from T. serratus (genetic divergence 1719%). An additional undescribed species of this group is reported from Esmeraldas in Ecuador and for the departments of Sucre and Choc in Colombia, but it is not described here because of the low number of individuals and the lack of DNA integrity. What is known under the name Tricorythodes serratus is suspected to be a species complex.

The threat of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) for cattle operations is exacerbated by increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Mannheimia haemolytica , a leading cause of BRD. Characterization of AMR in M. haemolytica by culture and susceptibility testing is complicated by uncertainty regarding the number of colonies that must be selected to accurately characterize AMR phenotypes (antibiograms) and genotypes in a culture. The study objective was to assess phenotypic and genotypic diversity of M. haemolytica isolates on nasopharyngeal swabs (NPS) from 28 cattle at risk for BRD or with BRD. NPS were swabbed onto five consecutive blood agar plates; after incubation up to 20 M. haemolytica colonies were selected per plate (up to 100 colonies per NPS). Phenotype was determined by measuring minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for 11 antimicrobials and classifying isolates as resistant or not. Genotype was indirectly determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF MS). NPS from 11 of 28 cattle yielded at least one M. haemolytica isolate; median (range) of isolates per NPS was 48 (1-94). NPS from seven cattle yielded one phenotype, 3 NPS yielded two, and 1 NPS yielded three; however, within a sample all phenotypic differences were due to only one MIC dilution. On each NPS all M. haemolytica isolated were the same genotype; genotype 1 was isolated from three NPS and genotype two was isolated from eight. Diversity of M. haemolytica on bovine NPS was limited, suggesting that selection of few colonies might adequately identify relevant phenotypes and genotypes., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Carter, Wills, Scott, Thompson, Singer, Loy, Karisch, Epperson and Woolums.)

Objective: To compare the strength of four constructs used to secure an osteotomy in a Center of Rotation Angulation (CORA)-Based Leveling Osteotomy (CBLO) in an ex vivo model., Study Design: Ex vivo study., Sample Population: Thirty-two canine tibiae from 17 skeletally mature cadavers weighing between 18 and 33.2 kg., Methods: Thirty-two paired tibiae with patella and patellar tendon were collected. Each tibia was randomly allocated to a construct group: plate and pin (Plate), plate with countersink compression screw (HCS), plate with tension band (TB), or plate with HCS and TB (HCSTB). Samples were loaded by distraction until failure. The stiffness, yield load, and ultimate load were compared between each fixation method., Results: No difference in stiffness of the constructs was detected between groups (p = .6937). Yield load for the HCSTB group (1211.06 N) was greater than the TB group (1016.41 N), the HCS group (907.20 N), and the Plate group (787.73 N) (p = .0069). The ultimate load for the HCSTB group (1387.82 N) was greater than the TB group (1076.36 N), HCS group (926.62 N), and the Plate group (774.35 N) (p = .0004)., Conclusions: CBLO fixation augmented with a TB and HCS provided a stronger construct that withstood a greater yield load and ultimate load than either augmentation strategy alone., Clinical Significance: Augmenting a CBLO fixation with a TB and a HCS can provide increased construct strength., (© 2021 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Background: In humans, washing stored blood products before transfusion reduces storage lesions and incidence of transfusion reactions, but the effectiveness of washing canine blood is unknown., Objectives: The objective was to determine if manually washing units of stored blood would reduce storage lesions without adversely affecting erythrocytes. We hypothesized that washing stored units would reduce concentrations of storage lesions and cause minimal erythrocyte damage., Animals: Eight healthy research dogs., Methods: Repeated measure cohort study. Units of whole blood were stored for 28 days and washed 3 times with 0.9% NaCl. Blood samples were collected before and after storage, after each wash, and after being held at a simulated transfusion temperature. Variables measured included CBC variables, blood gas analysis, erythrocyte morphology, mean corpuscular fragility (MCF), and eicosanoid concentrations. A Friedman's test was used to evaluate changes in variables (P < .05 was considered significant)., Results: After the first wash, compared to values after storage, there was a significant decrease in potassium (4.3 mmol/L [4.0-4.7] to 1.2 mmol/L [1-1.6]; P < .0001, median [range]), lactate (1.45 mmol/L [1.07-1.79] to 0.69 mmol/L [0.39-0.93]; P = .002), and partial pressure carbon dioxide (102 mm Hg [80.2-119.2] to 33.7 mm Hg [24.5-44.5]; P < .0001), and increase in MCV (69.3 fL [65.7-72.3] to 74 fL [69.6-79.5]; P = .0003), and MCF (0.444 fL [0.279-0.527] to 0.491 fL [0.43-0.616]; P = .0006)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: A single wash of stored whole blood significantly reduces most extracellular storage lesions, and additional washing might cause hemolysis., (© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Objective: To determine intra- and interobserver reliability of a fluorescein stain-based tear film breakup time (TFBUT) test as performed in a clinical environment with and without administration of a topical anesthetic., Animals: 21 privately owned dogs., Procedures: A randomized study design was used. Two independent observers that commonly perform the TFBUT test in clinical practice read the same description of TFBUT. Observers performed TFBUT testing for each dog before and after topical administration of 0.5% proparacaine solution in 4 testing periods with a 1-hour interval between periods. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) analysis was used to assess inter- and intraobserver test reliability. Linear mixed models were used to assess the main effects of testing period, observer, eye, and presence of ophthalmic disorders and their interactions on TFBUT., Results: Mean TFBUT measurements performed by observer 1 and observer 2 were 5.9 seconds and 8.6 seconds, respectively, when adjusted for other effects in the model. Intraobserver ICC was poor for one observer and moderate for the other. Interobserver ICC was poor without use of topical anesthetic and slightly lower when anesthetic was used. Observer and testing period were each significantly associated with TFBUT; the measurements decreased and were more variable after multiple applications of fluorescein stain and proparacaine., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results suggested tear film stability is negatively affected by topical administration of 0.5% proparacaine solution and repeated applications of fluorescein stain. The TFBUT test as performed in this study had poor to moderate reliability.

The methods and use of intraoperative ultrasound in 33 canine and five feline patients and its ability to localize and identify anatomical structures and pathological lesions in canines and felines undergoing intracranial surgery are described from a case series. All were client-owned referral patients admitted for neurologic evaluation, with an advanced imaging diagnosis of an intracranial lesion, and underwent surgical biopsy or surgical removal of the lesion. Medical records, retrieval and review of imaging reports, and characterization of findings for all canine and feline patients show that intraoperative ultrasound guidance was used in intracranial procedures during the period of 2012 and 2019. Twenty-nine of the canine patients had intracranial tumors. The remainder had various other conditions requiring intracranial intervention. Three of the feline patients had meningiomas, one had a depressed skull fracture, and one had an epidural hematoma. The tumors appeared hyperechoic on intraoperative ultrasound with the exception of cystic portions of the masses and correlated with the size and location seen on advanced imaging. Statistical comparison of the size of images seen on ultrasound and on MRI for 20 of the canine tumors revealed no statistical differences. Neuroanatomical structures, including vascular components, were easily identified, and tumor images correlated well with preoperative advanced imaging. The authors conclude that intraoperative ultrasound is a valuable asset in intracranial mass removals and can augment surgical guidance in a variety of intracranial disorders that require surgery. This is the first known publication in veterinary surgery of using intraoperative ultrasound as a tool in the operating theater to identify, localize, and monitor the removal/biopsy of intracranial lesions in small animals undergoing craniotomy/craniectomy., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Shores, Lee, Kornberg, Tollefson, Seitz, Wills and Beasley.)

Background: Pentoxifylline can decrease platelet function in humans, but the anti-platelet effects of pentoxifylline in dogs is unknown. The addition of a luciferin-luciferase reagent during platelet aggregometry can induce a dose-dependent potentiation of platelet aggregation., Objective: To determine if exposure to pentoxifylline, without the addition of a luciferin-luciferase reagent during aggregometry, causes canine platelet dysfunction. Our hypotheses were that pentoxifylline would inhibit platelet function, and that the addition of a luciferin-luciferase reagent would obscure detection of pentoxifylline-induced platelet dysfunction as measured via aggregometry., Methods: Seven healthy Walker hound dogs. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and whole blood were treated for 30 minutes with pentoxifylline: 0 (control), 1 and 2 μg/mL. The platelet aggregation was determined using optical (maximum amplitude) and impedance (ohms) aggregometry using collagen as the agonists, with and without a luciferin-luciferase reagent. Four samples were analysed per concentration and the results were averaged., Results: Based on optical aggregometry, there was no difference (p = 0.964) in the mean maximum amplitude at any pentoxifylline concentration, with and without the luciferin-luciferase reagent. During impedance aggregometry, the addition of a luciferin-luciferase reagent was associated with significantly (p < 0.001) greater platelet aggregation in response to a collagen agonist, regardless of the presence or absence of pentoxifylline., Conclusions: Pentoxifylline does not exert an in vitro anti-platelet effect on canine platelet aggregation when collagen is used as an agonist, but it is unknown if long-term oral drug administration will inhibit platelet aggregation. The addition of a luciferin-luciferase reagent during platelet aggregometry can artificially enhance canine platelet aggregation., (© 2021 The Authors. Veterinary Medicine and Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objective: To determine the effects of leukoreduction on N-methylhistamine (NMH; a stable histamine metabolite) concentration in units of canine whole blood during storage and incubation at room temperature (approx 22 °C) to simulate temperature conditions during transfusion., Animals: 8 healthy adult Walker Hounds., Procedures: A standard unit of blood (450 mL) was obtained from each dog twice, with at least 28 days between donations. Blood units collected from 4 dogs during the first donation underwent leukoreduction, whereas the blood units collected from the other 4 dogs did not undergo leukoreduction, prior to storage at 4 °C. The alternate treatment was applied to blood units collected during the second donation. A sample from each unit was obtained for determination of plasma NMH concentration the day of donation (before and after leukoreduction when applicable) and before and after incubation at room temperature for 5 hours on days 14 and 28 of storage., Results: Units that underwent leukoreduction had substantially lower leukocyte and platelet counts than nonleukoreduced units. Plasma NMH concentration increased immediately after leukoreduction but did not change significantly during the subsequent 28 days of storage, nor did it differ between units that did and did not undergo leukoreduction., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Leukoreduction and simulated transfusion temperature did not affect the histamine load in units of canine whole blood during the first 28 days of storage. Further research is necessary to determine whether histamine contributes to the development and severity of blood transfusion reactions in dogs.

An ideal dexmedetomidine protocol has yet to be determined for standing sedation in horses. It was hypothesized that an IV bolus followed by CRI dexmedetomidine would have a quicker increase in plasma concentrations compared with repeated IM injections. In a crossover design, eight adult, female horses were randomly placed into two groups: the CRI group (IV bolus dexmedetomidine at 0.005 mg/kg followed by a CRI at 0.01 mg/kg/h for 15 min then 0.005 mg/kg/h for 60 min) and the IM group (dexmedetomidine at 0.01 mg/kg, followed by 0.005 mg/kg in 30-min intervals for 60 min). Clearance and elimination half-life were 134 ± 67.4 ml/kg/min and 44.3 ± 26.3 min, respectively, in the CRI group, and apparent clearance and half-life were 412 ± 306 ml/kg/min (Cl/F) and 38.9 ± 18.6 min, respectively, in the IM group. Analgesia was evaluated using mechanical pressure threshold. Intravenous dexmedetomidine produced faster onset of sedation and increased pressure threshold compared with IM administration. Individual horses had a large variability in dexmedetomidine plasma concentrations between CRI and IM administration. The odds of a decreased GI motility following IV administration was 12.34 times greater compared with IM administration., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objective:  Successful stabilization of comminuted supracondylar humeral fractures is challenging, and biomechanical studies are scarce. This study compares double-plate (DB-PLATE) and linear external fixator with an intramedullary pin tie-in (ESF-IMP) fixation techniques in a cadaveric gap model. The hypothesis was the DB-PLATE construct would be stiffer, stronger and more resistant to repeated loading than the ESF-IMP construct in both cyclic and load-to-failure axial compression testing., Study Design:  A 2 cm ostectomy was performed on 10 pairs of canine cadaveric humeri proximal to the supratrochlear foramen. Stabilization was with DB-PLATE ( n  = 10) or ESF-IMP ( n  = 10). Cyclic testing was performed by applying a 200 N load at 2 Hz for 63,000 cycles. Axial compressive load to failure testing followed. Data analysed included dynamic stiffness, stiffness and yield load., Results:  No constructs failed during cyclic testing or lost stiffness over time. Mean dynamic stiffness over the final 100 cycles was greater for DB-PLATE compared with ESF-IMP. Mean stiffness of DB-PLATE in load-to-failure testing was not different than ESF-IMP. Yield load of DB-PLATE was higher than ESF-IMP., Conclusion:  Both DB-PLATE and ESF-IMP survived cyclic testing with no change in dynamic stiffness. DB-PLATE was stronger than ESF-IMP in load-to-failure testing, which may make this construct preferable when prolonged healing or poor patient compliance is anticipated. Results suggest that either method may be appropriate for fixation of comminuted supracondylar humeral fractures., Competing Interests: J.S. reports personal fees from Veterinary Orthopedic Implants (VOI), outside the submitted work. The other authors report no conflict of interest., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

This study aimed to describe the clinical use of oral fluoxetine hydrochloride administration in horses using a retrospective medical records analysis and to determine owner perception of efficacy via a standardized questionnaire. The records of ninety-five horses for which fluoxetine had been prescribed by the equine service of a veterinary teaching hospital from November 2010 and February 2019 were identified, and data were collected from the medical records. A standardized questionnaire was used to obtain data from owners regarding length of administration, ease of administration, adverse effects, and whether the owner noted improvement in the horse's behavior. Ninety-five horses received fluoxetine during the study period. Fluoxetine was prescribed to facilitate stall rest in 68 horses (Group A) and for behavior-related problems in 27 horses (Group B). The mean dosage was 0.25 mg/kg (range 0.15-0.54). Forty-seven of the 66 owners (71%) that completed the follow-up questionnaire reported a perceived improvement in the animal's behavior (29/41 in Group A and 18/25 in Group B). Fifty-eight owners (88%) reported that they felt the medication was easy to administer. When used to facilitate extended stall confinement, fluoxetine appears to be perceived as efficacious by most owners. Although the number of behavioral cases was low, the results indicate that the drug may also be useful for some problem behaviors. Further controlled behavioral studies are needed to investigate the use of fluoxetine for equine behavioral problems., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this article was to provide the nonmodeler reader of Poultry Science, an overview of the system dynamics modeling method (SDM) through development of a broiler house disease management simulator (BHDMS). System dynamics modeling uses feedback theory and computer-aided simulation to help elucidate relationships between factors in complex systems, which may be circular or interrupted with long delays. Materials used to build the simulator include data from literature and industry indices. The methods used were the steps in SDM, namely: 1) Identify the problem and boundaries; 2) develop a dynamic hypothesis explaining cause of the problem; 3) build the causal loop diagram (CLD); 4) develop the stock and flow model; 5) conduct model simulations; and 6) model validation. Results presented here are the CLD and stock and flow model of the simulator, results of scenario simulations, and model validity tests. The simulator consists of the main model, the disease submodel, and the antimicrobial use submodel. The main model represents a cycle of production in the broiler house of a specified length of time, which repeats after a specified down time. The disease submodel shows population dynamics in the broiler house in terms of changes over time in number of susceptible, infected, recovered, and dead birds. Production parameters that could be modified in the model include delivery size, grow-out period, down time, and efficacy of antimicrobials. Disease mortality levels, above the set threshold, trigger antimicrobial use in the model. The model showed the effect of antimicrobial use intervention on the population dynamics, namely, on the proportion of the susceptible, infected, recovered, and dead birds in the population. Thus, the BHDMS was able to simulate the effect of the intervention on population dynamics and would facilitate evaluating management interventions such as antimicrobial use., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Cervical spinal disorders can lead to life-threatening respiratory complications. Diaphragmatic dysfunction is attributed to spinal cord morbidity secondary to cervical myelopathy or decompressive surgical intervention. The purpose of this observational case-control study was to determine the frequency of diaphragmatic dysfunction in dogs with cervical spinal disorders and a control group, the strength of association between cervical myelopathies and decompressive surgery with diaphragm paresis, and the agreement between and clinical usefulness of fluoroscopy, motion-mode ultrasonography, and radiography for diagnosing diaphragmatic dysfunction. Thirty-five client-owned dogs were recruited with 14 control dogs and 21 test dogs. Dogs were evaluated for the presence of diaphragmatic dysfunction using radiography, M-mode ultrasonography, and fluoroscopy before and after an anesthetic or surgical event. Diaphragmatic dysfunction was observed more frequently in dogs with cervical spinal disease prior to surgery (8/21; 38.1%) compared to control dogs (3/14; 21.4%) but was not statistically significant (P = .30). The occurrence of diaphragmatic dysfunction did not significantly increase following surgical decompression in either group. There was no to slight agreement between all imaging modalities. Most dogs with diaphragmatic dysfunction were asymptomatic. Diaphragmatic dysfunction was not statistically associated with cervical myelopathy or decompressive surgery. Ultrasonography and radiography were not useful diagnostic tests for determining diaphragmatic dysfunction in asymptomatic dogs when compared to fluoroscopy., (© 2020 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Background: Dogs are often adminstered >1 immunosuppressive medication when treating immune-mediated diseases, and determining whether these different medications affect IL-2 expression would be useful when performing pharmacodynamic monitoring during cyclosporine therapy., Hypothesis/objectives: To determine the effects of 5 medications (prednisone, cyclosporine, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and leflunomide) on activated T-cell expression of the cytokines IL-2 and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)., Animals: Eight healthy dogs., Methods: Randomized, cross-over study comparing values before and after treatment, and comparing values after treatment among drugs. Dogs were administered each drug at standard oral doses for 1 week, with a washout of at least 21 days. Activated T-cell expression of IL-2 and IFN-γ mRNA was measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Blood drug concentrations were measured for cyclosporine, mycophenolate, and leflunomide metabolites., Results: Least squares means (with 95% confidence interval) before treatment for IL-2 (2.91 [2.32-3.50] ΔCt) and IFN-γ (2.33 [1.66-3.00 ΔCt]) values were significantly lower (both P < .001) than values after treatment (10.75 [10.16-11.34] and 10.79 [10.11-11.46] ΔCt, respectively) with cyclosporine. Similarly, least squares means before treatment for IL-2 (1.55 [1.07-2.02] ΔCt) and IFN-γ (2.62 [2.32-2.92] ΔCt) values were significantly lower (both P < .001) than values after treatment (3.55 [3.06-4.00] and 5.22 [4.92-5.52] ΔCt, respectively) with prednisone. Comparing delta cycle threshold values after treatment among drugs, cyclosporine was significantly different than prednisone (IL-2 and IFN-γ both P < .001), with cyclosporine more suppressive than prednisone., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Prednisone and cyclosporine both affected expression of IL-2 and IFN-γ, suggesting that both have the ability to influence results when utilizing pharmacodynamic monitoring of cyclosporine treatment., (© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Background: A clinical diagnosis (CDx) of pancreatitis includes evaluation of clinical signs, abdominal ultrasound (AUS), and pancreatic lipase. However, practitioners are using AUS to diagnose pancreatitis and are using AUS severity to guide decisions. The validity of this is unknown., Objectives: To determine whether (1) there is a correlation between AUS, specific canine pancreatic lipase (Spec cPL) assay, and CDx; (2) individual AUS abnormalities correlate more closely with CDx than others; (3) AUS severity mirrors clinical severity indices; (4) changes in AUS can be used as a marker for changes in Spec cPL or CDx; and (5) the sensitivity and specificity of AUS for pancreatitis., Animals: One hundred fifty-seven dogs., Methods: In this retrospective case study, inclusion criteria were signs of gastrointestinal, pancreatic disease, or both, in addition to having a Spec cPL and AUS performed within 30 hours. Information extracted from the records included bloodwork, Spec cPL, AUS images/clips, and severity of ultrasonographic findings., Results: AUS was weakly correlated with Spec cPL (r s = .0178, P = .03) and moderately correlated with CDx (r s = .379, P = <.001). Pancreatic size (r s = .285, P = <.001), echogenicity (r s = .365, P = <.001), and mesenteric echogenicity (r s = .343, P = <.001) were correlated with CDx. Change in AUS was not correlated with Spec cPL or CDx changes. When pancreatic enlargement, echogenicity, or altered mesenteric echogenicity were required for a diagnosis, the sensitivity and specificity were 89% (95% confidence interval [CI] 71.8, 97.7) and 43% (95% CI 34.0, 51.6). When all 3 criteria were required, the sensitivity and specificity were 43% (95% CI 24.5, 62.8) and 92% (95% CI 85.3, 95.7)., Conclusions: AUS should not be used in isolation to diagnose pancreatitis and is a poor indicator of severity., (© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Up to 70% of dogs with cranial cruciate ligament tears have concurrent meniscal injury, and these injuries can increase the risk of developing osteoarthritis and persistent lameness. Studies assessing joint space width on knee radiographs in people have indicated associations between joint space width and meniscal injuries. The aim of this prospective analytical study was to determine if there was an association between stifle joint space width on three different radiographic projections (the standard tibial plateau leveling osteotomy projections and a standing lateral projection) and meniscal injuries identified at surgery in dogs. There was a significant association between dogs with a meniscal tear and the corresponding joint space width on standard tibial plateau leveling osteotomy lateral radiographic projections (P-value = .0028). Based on receiver operator characteristic curve analysis, joint space widths measuring less than 3.43 mm may indicate a meniscal tear, with a corresponding 89.5% specificity and 40.5% sensitivity in dogs weighing 31 kg. Joint space narrowing is seen with meniscal tears in dogs, and radiography may be a noninvasive way to identify meniscal tears prior to surgery., (© 2019 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Cyclosporine A (CsA) is a calcineurin inhibitor that is known to decrease lymphocyte expression of NFAT-regulated cytokines in humans, dogs and cats, and thereby depress lymphocyte function. Less is known about the effects of CsA on lymphocytes in cats than in other species. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from 6 healthy cats. PBMCs were exposed to i) no treatment, ii) 5 μg/ml concavalin A (ConA), iii) 500 ng/ml CsA and iv) 5 μg/ml ConA and 500 ng/ml CsA. The effects of CsA on cell proliferation were assessed via live and necrotic cell counts from day 1 to day 6. Additionally, flow cytometry was utilized to determine the effect of CsA on apoptosis in feline lymphocytes at day 1 and day 5. ConA exposure resulted in increases in cell counts from day 1 to 6, peaking at day 5. CsA inhibited cell proliferation, indicated via decreased live lymphocyte cell counts in the cell cultures exposed to ConA and CsA, compared to the cell cultures exposed to ConA only. Furthermore, CsA induced early and late apoptotic changes in feline PBMCs. Differences in these responses may influence an individual cat's response to cyclosporine therapy., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to ascertain cellular characteristics and the dynamics of the sperm chromatin proteins protamine 1 (PRM1) and protamine 2 (PRM2) in the sperm of Holstein bulls having a different fertility status. Important sperm variables were analyzed using computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA). Sperm membrane, acrosome status, DNA integrity were also assessed using propidium iodide (PI), fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated to Arachis hypogaea (FITC-PNA), and acridine orange (AO) followed by flow cytometry. In addition, abundances of PRM1 and PRM2 were analyzed using flow cytometry experiments. Differences in sperm decondensation capacity were assessed in bulls of varying fertility using a decondensation assay. As determined using CASA, average pathway velocity, amplitude of lateral head displacement and straightness were different (P < 0.05) for sperm from high and low fertility bulls. There, however, were no differences between the high and low fertility bulls for characteristics of sperm plasma membrane, acrosome, and DNA integrity (P >  0.05). Relative abundances of PRM1 and PRM2 in sperm from the high and low fertility bulls were inversely related (P <  0.0001). Percentages of decondensed sperm were different between high and low fertility bulls (P < 0.0001) and total numbers of decondensed sperm were greater in low fertility bulls than high fertility bulls (R 2  = 0.72). Results of the present study are significant because molecular and morphological phenotypes of sperm that were detected affect fertility in livestock species., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine synovial butorphanol concentrations and mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) changes after butorphanol intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP)., Study Design: Experimental ANIMALS: Six adult horses., Methods: Cephalic IVRLP was performed with 10 mg butorphanol in sedated horses with a wide rubber tourniquet and a total volume of 30 mL. Radiocarpal synovial fluid and serum concentrations along with MNT were evaluated prior to and 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours after IVRLP. Butorphanol concentrations were determined with liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry positive electrospray ionization., Results: Butorphanol concentrations reached mean (SD) peak concentrations of 9.47 ng/mL (±12.00) in synovial fluid and 3.89 ng/mL (3.29) in serum 30 minutes after IVRLP. Concentrations remained above baseline for 4 hours in synovial fluid (P ≤ .017) and for 2 hours in serum (P ≤ .016). The only difference in MNT was detected 1 hour after IVRLP, when MNT were higher in controls than in treated horses (P = .047)., Conclusion: Butorphanol IVRLP seemed well tolerated and resulted in measurable levels of butorphanol in the radiocarpal synovial fluid of five of six horses., Clinical Significance: Intravenous regional limb perfusion appears to be a viable alternative to administer butorphanol, but additional investigation is required to evaluate the dose and local concentrations required for analgesia., (© 2019 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Cyclosporine and glucocorticoids are powerful immunosuppressive agents used to treat many inflammatory diseases in dogs. Cyclosporine inhibits calcineurin-dependent pathways of T cell activation and resultant T cell cytokine production, and glucocorticoids directly inhibit genes coding for cytokines. Little work has been done comparing the effects of these agents on T cell cytokine production in dogs. Our study measured T cell interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production using flow cytometry and T cell IL-2 and IFN-γ gene expression using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in activated canine T cells incubated with cyclosporine and dexamethasone in vitro. For flow cytometric assays, diluted whole blood was cultured for 7 h in the presence of cyclosporine (10, 100, 500, and 1000 ng/mL) or dexamethasone (10 ng/mL, 100 ng/mL, 1 μg/mL, and 10 μg/mL). For qRT-PCR, whole blood was cultured for 5 h with the same drugs at the same concentrations, and RNA was then extracted from leukocytes. Flow cytometry and qRT-PCR both demonstrated inhibition of IL-2 and IFN-γ that was concentration-dependent in response to cyclosporine, and was more variable for dexamethasone. Quantitative RT-PCR but not flow cytometry documented significant reduction of IL-2 expression after dexamethasone treatment, while both methods showed concentration-dependent suppression of IFN-γ. Quantitative RT-PCR also revealed additional cytokine suppression at higher cyclosporine concentrations, an effect not found using flow cytometry, and may therefore be the preferred method for cytokine determination in dogs. Suppression of IL-2 and IFN-γ in activated T cells may have potential as an indicator of the efficacy of cyclosporine and glucocorticoids in suppressing canine T cell function in vivo, and may therefore be of value for characterizing the immunosuppression induced by these drugs in clinical patients., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the influence of short-term administration of carprofen on bone healing in dogs., Study Design: Randomized controlled experimental study., Animals: Eighteen purpose-bred sexually mature hound dogs., Methods: Tibial osteotomies were performed, and dogs were divided into three groups: no carprofen (n = 6), 2-week administration of carprofen at 2.2 mg/kg twice daily (n = 6), and 8-week administration of carprofen at 2.2 mg/kg twice daily (n = 5). Bone healing was evaluated radiographically at 4 and 8 weeks postoperatively. Postmortem, fracture healing was assessed via biomechanical testing (three-point bending), histological cartilage:callus ratio, and bone mineral density (BMD) with quantitative computed tomography., Results: No biomechanical difference was detected between dogs that received no carprofen and those that received 2 weeks of carprofen or between those that received 2 weeks vs 8 weeks of carprofen. Stiffness (P = .035) and maximum stress (P = .042) were higher in dogs that received no carprofen than in those that received 8 weeks of carprofen. Radiographic healing did not differ between dogs without carprofen and those with 2-week administration of carprofen (P = .9923). However, tibias of dogs without carprofen and those with 2-week administration of carprofen were more healed compared with those in the 8-week-carprofen group at 4 and 8 weeks after surgery (P = .0011). No treatment effect was detected by cartilage:callus ratio or BMD., Conclusion: Long-term administration of carprofen had a negative effect on bone healing compared with short-term or no administration of carprofen., Clinical Significance: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be used cautiously in dogs at risk for delayed bone healing, and administration should be discontinued beyond the perioperative period in dogs with fractures or osteotomies., (© 2019 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Objective: To determine whether passage of whole blood through a microaggregate filter by use of a syringe pump would damage canine erythrocytes., Sample: Blood samples obtained from 8 healthy client-owned dogs., Procedures: Whole blood was passed through a standard microaggregate filter by use of a syringe pump at 3 standard administration rates (12.5, 25, and 50 mL/h). Prefilter and postfilter blood samples were collected at the beginning and end of a simulated transfusion. Variables measured at each time point included erythrocyte osmotic fragility, mean corpuscular fragility, RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, RBC distribution width, and RBC morphology. In-line pressure when blood passed through the microaggregate filter was measured continuously throughout the simulated transfusion. After the simulated transfusion was completed, filters were visually analyzed by use of scanning electron microscopy., Results: Regardless of administration rate, there was no significant difference in mean corpuscular fragility, RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, or RBC distribution width between prefilter and postfilter samples. Additionally, there were no differences in in-line pressure during the simulated transfusion among administration rates. Echinocytes were the erythrocyte morphological abnormality most commonly observed at the end of the transfusion at administration rates of 12.5 and 25 mL/h., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results suggested that regardless of the administration rate, the microaggregate filter did not alter fragility of canine RBCs, but may have altered the morphology. It appeared that the microaggregate filter would not contribute to substantial RBC damage for transfusions performed with a syringe pump.

Objective: To evaluate coagulation factors in units of leukoreduced (LR) and nonleukoreduced (non-LR) canine fresh-frozen plasma (cFFP)., Animals: 8 healthy research dogs., Procedures: In a crossover study, dogs were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups from which blood was collected and either did or did not undergo leukoreduction. After a recovery period of ≥ 28 days, the dogs were switched between protocols. After each collection, blood samples were centrifuged, and cFFP was stored frozen for later comparative analysis of coagulation factors, antithrombin, and protein C activities (reported as comparative percentages of the corresponding activities determined in a canine pooled plasma standard); prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times; and fibrinogen concentration., Results: There were no significant differences detected between results for LR cFFP, compared with those for non-LR cFFP., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Although there was variation among residual activities of coagulation factors in LR and non-LR cFFP, the variations and differences were considered unlikely to impact the efficacy of LR cFFP transfused for coagulation factor replacement in dogs. However, owing to the small sample size and high variability of results in the present study, additional research with a larger sample size is required for definitive conclusions on the effects of leukoreduction on coagulation factors in cFFP and to develop treatment guidelines for LR cFFP use in dogs with congenital and acquired coagulopathies.

A colorimetric scale has the potential to be very useful as a training tool for students in veterinary training programs. The authors of this report hypothesized that clinically active, graduate level veterinary students would assess mucous membrane color with greater consistency using an image-based system than with traditional word-based techniques. Third- and fourth-year veterinary students were asked to evaluate 10 canine gingival mucosa images and rate them with either an image-based scale designed by the authors or a word-based system. Although the mean absolute deviations from the median values were greater for the word scale (0.22) than for the image scale (0.20) indicating increased variation, mixed model analysis did not demonstrate these differences were significant ( p = .120). Based on this data it is possible that prior image and word-based instruction made it easier for the students to differentiate mucous membrane colors, or that the majority of the students were multimodal learners rather than single-type learners, making previous instruction techniques effective regardless of whether they were visual or read/write based. The authors recommend that future investigators both evaluate previous student instruction and consider administering visual, auditory, read/write, kinesthetic (VARK) tests when investigating potential learning aids in veterinary medicine.

Rickettsia parkeri, a causative agent of spotted fever rickettsiosis, is transmitted by Amblyomma maculatum (Gulf Coast tick), a tick that may also carry a non-pathogenic spotted fever group Rickettsia, "Candidatus Rickettsia andeanae". Here, we evaluated R. parkeri and "Candidatus R. andeanae" in tissues from A. maculatum prior to, during, and after blood feeding on rabbits. Using colony-reared A. maculatum that were capillary-fed uninfected cells, R. parkeri, "Candidatus R. andeanae", or both rickettsiae, we detected higher levels of Rickettsia spp. in the respective treatment groups. Rickettsial levels increased during blood feeding for both R. parkeri and "Candidatus R. andeanae", with a greater increase in R. parkeri in co-infected ticks compared to singly-infected ticks. We detected transovarial transmission of "Candidatus R. andeanae" in egg and larval cohorts and confirmed vertical transmission of R. parkeri in one group of larvae. Rabbits from all Rickettsia-exposed groups seroconverted on immunofluorescent antibody testing using R. parkeri antigen. Visualization of "Candidatus R. andeanae" in tick salivary glands suggested potential transmission via tick feeding. Here, rickettsial levels in artificially infected ticks demonstrate changes during feeding and transovarial transmission that may be relevant for interpreting rickettsial levels detected in wild A. maculatum.

Epidemiological associations were reported in several studies between persistent organochlorine organic pollutants and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). Mississippi is a highly agricultural state in the USA, particularly the Delta region, with previous high usage of organochlorine (OC) insecticides such as p,p' - dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). In addition, there is a high proportion of African Americans who display elevated prevalence of T2D. Therefore, this State provides an important dataset for further investigating any relationship between OC compounds and metabolic diseases. The aim of this study was to assess whether soil and serum levels of OC compounds, such as p,p' - dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), arising from the heavy historical use of legacy OC insecticides, might serve as an environmental public health indicator for T2D occurrence. Soil samples from 60 Delta and 60 non-Delta sites randomly selected were analyzed for the presence of OC compounds. A retrospective cohort study of adult men (150 from each region) was recruited to provide a blood sample for OC compound quantitation and select demographic and clinical information including T2D. Using multivariable logistic regression, an association was found between increasing serum DDE levels and T2D occurrence in non-Delta participants (those subjects with lower serum DDE levels), as opposed to Delta participants (individuals with higher serum DDE levels). Thus, while there was a relationship between serum DDE levels and T2D in those with lower burdens of DDE, the lack of association in those with higher levels of DDE indicates a complex non-monotonic correlation between serum DDE levels and T2D occurrence complicating the goal of finding a public health marker for T2D. Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; CDC, Center for Disease Control, United States of America; DDE, p,p' - dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene; DDT, p,p' - dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; GC/MS, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry; GIS, geographic information system; GPS, global positioning system; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HTN, hypertension; IDW, inverse distance weighting; IRB, Institutional Review Board; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; LOQ, limit of quantitation; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; POPs, persistent organic pollutants; OC, organochlorine; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; SIM, single-ion monitoring; T2D, type 2 diabetes mellitus; USA, United States of America.

Background: Internal plate fixation and, more recently, locking plate fixation are commonly used in the repair of fractures in small animal surgery. This retrospective study reviewed the use of the String of Pearls locking plate system in the fixation/repair of appendicular long bone skeleton fractures in 31 small animal veterinary patients (33 fractures)., Results: Major complications necessitating revision surgery occurred in 7/33 (21%), with implant failure as the inciting cause in all cases. Variables corresponding to an unsuccessful outcome were evaluated, and a correlation was found with plates placed in a bridging manner (placed without rigid anatomic reconstruction, p = 0.02) and length of follow-up (p = 0.01)., Conclusions: The SOP plating system can be used in the repair of appendicular longbone skeletal fractures, however, the authors propose that adjunct fixation, such as intramedullary pin, double plating, or external coaptation would likely improve results and should be considered imperative in cases in which anatomic reconstruction is either not desirable or achievable.

Amblyomma maculatum is the primary vector for the spotted fever group rickettsiae, Rickettsia parkeri, a known pathogen, and "Candidatus Rickettsia andeanae," currently considered nonpathogenic. Spotted fever group rickettsiae are typically endothelial cell associated and rarely circulate in the blood. Horizontal transmission to naïve ticks through blood feeding from an infected host is likely rare. Cofeeding provides an opportunity for rickettsial transmission to naïve ticks in the absence of circulating rickettsiae. We evaluated R. parkeri transmission through cofeeding between A. maculatum adults and nymphs on beef calves. Six calves in each of two trials were infested with A. maculatum that had been capillary fed R. parkeri. Four days later, calves each received recipient A. maculatum that were either capillary fed "Ca. R. andeanae" or not capillary fed before infestation. Trials differed by whether we included a barrier to minimize adjacent feeding between recipient and donor ticks. After cofeeding, we detected R. parkeri in 27% of "Ca. R. andeanae"-free recipient ticks, whereas R. parkeri was not detected in any recipient ticks that were capillary fed "Ca. R. andeanae." Rickettsia parkeri transmission efficiency to naïve ticks was greater when ticks freely cofed in proximity. No rickettsial DNA was detected in calf blood. Results confirm cofeeding as a method of horizontal transmission of R. parkeri in the absence of host rickettsemia and suggest no evidence of transmission by cofeeding when recipient ticks are first exposed to "Ca. R. andeanae" through capillary feeding. While cofeeding may provide an opportunity for maintaining the pathogen, R. parkeri, the mechanisms driving any potential effect of "Ca. R. andeanae" on R. parkeri transmission are unclear.

OBJECTIVE To determine whether medial patellar luxation would affect radiographic tibial plateau angle (TPA) measurements in small-breed dogs. DESIGN Prospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS 15 small-breed dogs (25 stifle joints) with grade 2 or 3 medial patellar luxation (5 dogs with unilateral luxation and 10 dogs with bilateral luxation). PROCEDURES Digital mediolateral radiographic images of each affected stifle joint were acquired with the patella in manually reduced (n = 25) and luxated (25) positions. In 2 measurement sessions separated by > 48 hours, 3 observers unaware of patella status (luxated or reduced) measured the TPA in each image twice in random order. Mixed linear modeling was performed to determine the effect of patella status on TPA measurements, and intraobserver and interobserver variation in measurements were calculated. RESULTS TPA measurements by all observers differed significantly between the first and second measurement sessions, but by a mean value of only 0.7°. A few significant differences were identified between 1 pair of observers by patella status and between patella statuses for 1 observer, but all mean differences were ≤ 1.7°. No significant difference in intraobserver variation was identified between patella statuses for any observer. Interobserver variation was not affected by patella status and measurement session. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Although some significant differences were identified in radiographic TPA measurements in dogs with medial patellar luxation, depending on whether the patella was luxated or manually reduced, these differences were so small they could be considered clinically unimportant. Consequently, we believe that in small-breed dogs with patellar luxation, patella status would be unlikely to have a clinically meaningful effect on the measured TPA.

OBJECTIVE To determine brain region affinity for and retention of gadolinium in dogs after administration of gadodiamide and whether formalin fixation affects quantification. ANIMALS 14 healthy dogs. PROCEDURES 13 dogs received gadodiamide (range, 0.006 to 0.1 mmol/kg, IV); 1 control dog received a placebo. Dogs received gadodiamide 3 to 7 days (n = 8) or 9 hours (5) before euthanasia and sample collection. Brain regions were analyzed with inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and transmission electron microscopy. Associations between dose, time to euthanasia, and gadolinium retention quantities (before and after fixation in 5 dogs) were evaluated. RESULTS Gadolinium retention was seen in all brain regions at all doses, except for the control dog. Exposure 3 to 7 days before euthanasia resulted in 1.7 to 162.5 ng of gadolinium/g of brain tissue (dose-dependent effect), with cerebellum, parietal lobe, and brainstem affinity. Exposure 9 hours before euthanasia resulted in 67.3 to 1,216.4 ng of gadolinium/g of brain tissue without dose dependency. Transmission electron microscopy revealed gadolinium in examined tissues. Fixation did not affect quantification in samples immersed for up to 69 days. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Gadodiamide exposure resulted in gadolinium retention in the brain of healthy dogs. Cerebellum, parietal lobe, and brainstem affinity was detected with dose dependency only in dogs exposed 3 to 7 days before euthanasia. Fixation had no effect on quantification when tissues were immersed for up to 69 days. Physiologic mechanisms for gadolinium retention remained unclear. The importance of gadolinium retention requires further investigation.

Objective: To compare the efficacy and duration of effect of three local anesthetics on corneal sensitivity when administered subconjunctivally in horses., Animals Studied: Eight healthy adult horses., Procedure: A randomized, masked, crossover study design was used, with a two-week washout period between trials. The subconjunctival space of the randomly selected eye was injected with 0.2 mLs of bupivacaine (0.5%), lidocaine (2%), mepivacaine (2%), or saline. All horses received each medication once. The contralateral eye served as a control. The corneal touch threshold (CTT) was measured in both eyes with a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer prior to sedation with xylazine, after sedation, and at 10-min intervals after subconjunctival injection until corneal sensitivity returned to baseline. The total time of decreased CTT and the maximum decrease in CTT were compared for each medication using a general linear mixed model (P < 0.05)., Results: Total time of decreased CTT was 105.0 min for bupivacaine, 103.8 min for lidocaine, 138.8 min for mepivacaine, and 7.5 min for saline. All local anesthetics decreased CTT longer than saline (P < 0.001) and mepivacaine decreased CTT longer than lidocaine (P = 0.04). The mean minimum CTT was 1.67 cm for bupivacaine, 1.42 cm for lidocaine, and 0.73 cm for mepivacaine, which were all significantly less (P < 0.001) than saline (4.73 cm). No evidence of corneal toxicity was noted with any treatment., Conclusion: Subconjunctival injections of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and mepivacaine effectively and safely reduce corneal sensitivity in eyes of healthy horses for 1.5-2 h, and may be useful for providing perioperative analgesia for equine corneal procedures., (© 2017 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Objective: To determine meropenem concentrations in radiocarpal (RC) joint fluid and plasma after intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP)., Study Design: In vivo experimental study., Animals: Nine healthy adult mares., Methods: Meropenem (500 mg) was injected in the forelimb of standing sedated horses via IVRLP with a pneumatic tourniquet inflated to 400 mmHg. Synovial fluid was collected from RC joints at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 18 hours after meropenem injection. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein at the same time points and at 5 and 15 minutes following injection. Meropenem concentrations were determined by using a microbiological bioassay., Results: Median synovial fluid concentrations reached a time of maximum synovial fluid concentration 0.5 hours after IVRLP. Synovial fluid concentrations varied greatly, with a mean maximum synovial fluid concentration of 25.6 µg/mL (range, below limit of quantitation to 75.5). Concentrations remained above the breakpoint for susceptibility (1 µg/mL) for 3 hours (last nonzero concentration measured, median) and 4.1 hours (predicted, mean). Concentrations >6 µg/mL were measured for 2 hours (observed, median) and 1.7 hours (predicted, mean). Six horses had mild swelling at the injection site., Conclusion: Administration of 500 mg meropenem resulted in highly variable concentrations between horses and achieved levels above clinically relevant minimum inhibitory concentration for a minor portion of a once-daily dosing interval., Clinical Significance: If time-dependent pharmacodynamics apply, IVRLP with 500 mg of meropenem may be ineffective and would likely promote resistance., (© 2018 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Background: In dogs, the effects of immunosuppressive medications on hemostasis are not well known., Hypothesis/objectives: The objective was to determine the effects of immunosuppressive medications on primary and secondary hemostasis. Our hypothesis was that cyclosporine and prednisone would increase markers of hypercoagulability and thromboxane synthesis, while azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and leflunomide would have minimal effects on hemostasis., Animals: Eight healthy dogs., Methods: A randomized, cross-over study used aggregometry, the PFA-100 platelet function analyzer, viscoelastometry, platelet count, and prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times to evaluate hemostasis during the administration of prednisone, azathioprine, cyclosporine, mycophenolate mofetil, and leflunomide for 1 week each at standard oral doses. Urine 11-dehydro-thromboxane-B 2 (11-dTXB 2 ) and 6-keto-prostaglandin-F 1α (6-keto-PGF 1α ) concentrations, normalized to urine creatinine concentration, were measured., Results: The aggregometry amplitude decreased from 51 ± 21 to 27 ± 14 (P = .002) during leflunomide treatment (ADP activation), but there were no differences in amplitude (P = .240) for any medications when platelets were activated with collagen. For all medications, there were no significant differences in viscoelastometry indices (ACT, P = .666; ClotRate, P = .340; and platelet function, P = .411) and platelet count (P = .552). Compared with pretreatment values, urinary 11-dTXB 2 -to-creatinine ratio increased (P = .001) after drug administration (from 3.7 ± 0.6 to 5.6 ± 1.1). Cyclosporine was associated with an increase (P < .001) in the 6-keto-PGF 1α -to-creatinine ratio (from 10.3 ± 4.6 to 22.1 ± 5.3)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Most immunosuppressive drugs do not enhance platelet function or coagulation in healthy dogs, suggesting that these medications might not predispose hypercoagulable dogs to thromboembolism. The results of our study need to be correlated with the clinical outcomes of hypercoagulable dogs., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Epigenetic modifications in histones are crucial for proper sperm physiology, egg activation and reproductive development of males. The objectives of this study were to determine the conservation and interactomes of histone three (H3) and ascertain the expression dynamics of acetylated and methylated H3 lysine 27 (H3K27ac and H3K27me3) in spermatozoa from Holstein bulls with different fertility. Methods in immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry were used to evaluate the expression dynamics of H3K27ac and H3K27me3 in spermatozoa from 10 bulls with different in vivo fertility. Computational biology methods including Clustal Omega and Cytoscape were performed to determine the evolutionary conservation and interactome of H3. The post-translational modifications (PTM) of H3 (H3K27ac and H3K27me3) had different spatiotemporal dynamics in the sperm head. Intensities of methylation were higher than those of acetylation and inversely correlated between the two fertility groups (p = .0032). The interacting proteins of H3 are involved in critical subcellular processes such as regulation of methylation, nucleosome assembly, regulation of DNA replication and chromatin assembly. These results are significant because they help advance fundamental science and biotechnology of mammalian reproduction., (© 2017 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of 2 bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) sampling techniques and the use of N-butylscopolammonium bromide (NBB) on the quantity and quality of BAL fluid (BALF) samples obtained from horses with the summer pasture endophenotype of equine asthma. ANIMALS 8 horses with the summer pasture endophenotype of equine asthma. PROCEDURES BAL was performed bilaterally (right and left lung sites) with a flexible videoendoscope passed through the left or right nasal passage. During lavage of the first lung site, a BALF sample was collected by means of either gentle syringe aspiration or mechanical suction with a pressure-regulated wall-mounted suction pump. The endoscope was then maneuvered into the contralateral lung site, and lavage was performed with the alternate fluid retrieval technique. For each horse, BAL was performed bilaterally once with and once without premedication with NBB (21-day interval). The BALF samples retrieved were evaluated for volume, total cell count, differential cell count, RBC count, and total protein concentration. RESULTS Use of syringe aspiration significantly increased total BALF volume (mean volume increase, 40 mL [approx 7.5% yield]) and decreased total RBC count (mean decrease, 142 cells/μL), compared with use of mechanical suction. The BALF nucleated cell count and differential cell count did not differ between BAL procedures. Use of NBB had no effect on BALF retrieval. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that retrieval of BALF by syringe aspiration may increase yield and reduce barotrauma in horses at increased risk of bronchoconstriction and bronchiolar collapse. Further studies to determine the usefulness of NBB and other bronchodilators during BAL procedures in horses are warranted.

Background: A longitudinal study assessed serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity and concentration as affected by age and as associated with the development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). PON1's recently established physiological function is the hydrolysis of lipolactones in oxidized LDL particles., Methods: Serum samples and clinical data collected and stored at different time points over a 20-year interval in the Air Force Health Study were analysed. PON1 activity and concentration and C-reactive protein concentration in samples from the same individuals 20 years apart were compared using a paired t test (n = 159). A case-control study design and multivariable logistic regression analysis assessed the association of PON1's activity and concentration with the subsequent development of T2D (n = 222 and α = 0.10)., Results: No difference with age was found in PON1 activity assessed using 3 substrates, paraoxon (P = 0.897), phenyl acetate (P = 0.994), and dihydrocoumarin (P = 0.505), or PON1 serum concentration (P = 0.357). C-reactive protein concentration increased 0.7 mg/L (P = 0.004) over the 20-year interval. Lower PON1 activity assayed with phenyl acetate (P = 0.015, OR = 1.25 per 1000 U/L decrease) was associated with an increased risk of developing T2D as was a lower PON1 serum concentration (P = 0.004, OR = 1.72 per 2 μmol/L decrease). PON1 activity assayed with paraoxon (P = 0.681) or dihydrocoumarin (P = 0.136) was not associated with the development of T2D., Conclusions: Lower PON1 activity and concentration were associated with an increased risk of developing T2D when adjusted for many of the common risk markers for T2D previously identified. Thus, PON1 may have merit as a biomarker for the development of T2D., (Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Background: The sensitivity, specificity, and agreement of 4 diagnostic assays (SNAP canine pancreatic lipase (cPL), specific cPL (Spec cPL), VetScan cPL Rapid Test, and Precision PSL) for pancreatitis in dogs have not been directly compared., Hypothesis/objectives: To determine the level of agreement among each of the 4 assays and a clinical suspicion score, level of agreement among the assays, and sensitivity and specificity of each assay in a clinically relevant patient group., Animals: Fifty client-owned dogs with clinical signs of gastrointestinal disease., Methods: Prospective study. History, physical examination, complete blood count, serum biochemistry, abdominal ultrasound examination, and the 4 diagnostic assays for pancreatitis were performed. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to determine the level of agreement between each assay and a clinical suspicion score determined by a panel of 5 board-certified veterinary internists., Results: The ICC between the clinical suspicion score and the 4 assays were SNAP cPL, 0.61; Spec cPL, 0.68; VetScan cPL Rapid Test, 0.68; and Precision PSL, 0.60. The sensitivities of the assays ranged from 73.9 to 100.0%, whereas the specificities were SNAP cPL, 71.1-77.8%; Spec cPL, 74.1-81.1%; VetScan cPL Rapid Test, 76.9-83.8%; and Precision PSL, 64.0-74.3%., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: A good to excellent level of agreement was demonstrated among the 4 assays. The previously unreported sensitivity and specificity of the VetScan cPL Rapid Test were 73.9-83.3% and 76.9-83.8%, respectively. Results of any of the 4 diagnostic assays alone, in the absence of supporting clinical findings, are insufficient to establish a diagnosis of clinical pancreatitis in dogs., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

This combined retrospective-prospective study evaluated the correlation between canine urine color (UC) and urine specific gravity (USG). Urine color was positively correlated with USG, but the relationship was not significantly improved by use of a UC chart. Urine color as an indicator of USG is limited as 20% of dark-yellow samples had a USG < 1.030.