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Plant–microbial relations have not yet been fully disclosed in natural or seminatural ecosystems, nor in novel ecosystems developing spontaneously on post-coal mine heaps. The aim of this study was to determine which factor, biotic (plant taxonomic diversity vs. plant functional diversity) or abiotic (physicochemical substrate parameters), affects the biomass of soil microbial communities the most, as well as soil in situ respiration in novel ecosystems. The study was carried out on unreclaimed plots selected according to four different combinations of taxonomic and functional plant diversity. Additionally, plots on a reclaimed heap served as a comparison between the two management types. The biomass of several soil microbial groups was analysed using phospholipid fatty acids profiles. We detected that soil microbial biomass was more impacted by abiotic parameters (explaining 23% of variance) than plant diversity (explaining 12% of variance). Particularly, we observed that substrate pH was the most important factor shaping microbial community biomass, as shown in the RDA analysis. The highest microbial biomass was found in plots with low taxonomic and functional diversity. This finding can be explained by the fact that these plots represented a more advanced phase of vegetation development in the early stages of plant succession.

Aims Pioneer tree species such as Betula pendula and Pinus sylvestris encroach soils contaminated with heavy metals (HMs). This is facilitated by ectomycorrhizal fungi colonizing tree roots. Thus, we evaluated the ectomycorrhizal fungal (EMF) communities of B. pendula and P. sylvestris growing in HM-contaminated soils compared to non-contaminated soils. We also studied the effect of HMs and soil properties on EMF communities and soil fungal biomass. Methods Roots of B. pendula and P. sylvestris were collected from three HM-contaminated sites and from two non-contaminated sites located in Poland. EMF species were identified using DNA barcoding. Soil fungal biomass was determined by soil ergosterol. Results B. pendula and P. sylvestris growing in HM-contaminated soils had similar EMF communities, where Scleroderma, Rhizopogon and Russula as well as ectomycorrhizae of the long-distance exploration type dominated. Among all of the examined soil factors studied, toxicity index (TITotal) was the most significant factor shaping the composition of EMF communities. Despite significant differences in the structure of the EMF communities of trees growing in HM-contaminated sites compared to control sites, no differences in overall diversity were observed. Conclusions Only well-adapted EMF species can survive toxic conditions and form ectomycorrhizal symbiosis with encroaching trees facilitating the forest succession on contaminated soils.

The primary producers and processes of matter and energy flow, reflected by the soil enzyme activity, are the basics of all ecosystem functioning processes. This paper reviews the relationships between the plant diversity, the physicochemical substrate parameters, and the soil enzymatic activity in novel ecosystems of the urban–industrial landscape, where the factors driving soil enzyme activity are not fully understood and still need to be studied. The relationship between the biotic and abiotic factors in the development of novel ecosystems on de novo established habitats, e.g., sites of post-mineral excavation, are shaped in ways unknown from the natural and the semi-natural habitats. The main criteria of de novo established ecosystems are the vegetation patches of the non-analogous species composition created as a result of human impact. The non-analogous species assemblages are associated with different microorganism communities because the biomass and the biochemistry of soil organic matter influence the enzyme activity of soil substrates. Moreover, the soil enzyme activity is an indicator that can dynamically reflect the changes in the microbial community structure dependent on the best-adapted plant species, thanks to the particular traits and individual adaptive adjustments of all the plant species present. This way, soil enzyme activity reflects the sum and the interactions of the elements of the ecosystem structure, irrespective of the vegetation history and the habitat origin.

Examination of fungal specimens collected in the Atlantic rain forest ecosystems of Northeast Brazil revealed many potentially new epigeous and semihypogeous glomerocarp-producing species of the phylum Glomeromycota. Among them were two fungi that formed unorganized epigeous glomerocarps with glomoid spores of almost identical morphology. The sole structure that distinguished the two fungi was the laminate layer 2 of their three-layered spore wall, which in spores of the second fungus crushed in PVLG-based mountants contracted and, consequently, transferred into a crown-like structure. Surprisingly, phylogenetic analyses of sequences of the 18S-ITS-28S nuc rDNA and the rpb1 gene indicated that these glomerocarps represent two strongly divergent undescribed species in the family Glomeraceae. The analyses placed the first in the genus Dominikia, and the second in a sister clade to the monospecific generic clade Kamienskia with Kamienskia bistrata. The first species was described here as Dominikia glomerocarpica sp. nov. Because D. glomerocarpica is the first glomerocarp-forming species in Dominikia, the generic description of this genus was emended. The very large phylogenetic distance and the fundamental morphological differences between the second species and K. bistrata suggested us to introduce a new genus, here named as Epigeocarpum gen. nov., and name the new species Epigeocarpum crypticum sp. nov. In addition, our analyses also focused on an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus originally described as Rhizophagus neocaledonicus, later transferred to the genus Rhizoglomus. The analyses indicated that this species does not belong to any of these two genera but represents a new clade at the rank of genus in the Glomeraceae, here described as Silvaspora gen. nov.

Examination of fungal specimens collected in the Atlantic rain forest ecosystems of Northeast Brazil revealed many potentially new epigeous and semihypogeous glomerocarp-producing species of the phylum Glomeromycota. Among them were two fungi that formed unorganized epigeous glomerocarps with glomoid spores of almost identical morphology. The sole structure that distinguished the two fungi was the laminate layer 2 of their three-layered spore wall, which in spores of the second fungus crushed in PVLG-based mountants contracted and, consequently, transferred into a crown-like structure. Surprisingly, phylogenetic analyses of sequences of the 18S-ITS-28S nuc rDNA and the rpb1 gene indicated that these glomerocarps represent two strongly divergent undescribed species in the family Glomeraceae. The analyses placed the first in the genus Dominikia, and the second in a sister clade to the monospecific generic clade Kamienskia with Kamienskia bistrata. The first species was described here as Dominikia glomerocarpica sp. nov. Because D. glomerocarpica is the first glomerocarp-forming species in Dominikia, the generic description of this genus was emended. The very large phylogenetic distance and the fundamental morphological differences between the second species and K. bistrata suggested us to introduce a new genus, here named as Epigeocarpum gen. nov., and name the new species Epigeocarpum crypticum sp. nov. In addition, our analyses also focused on an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus originally described as Rhizophagus neocaledonicus, later transferred to the genus Rhizoglomus. The analyses indicated that this species does not belong to any of these two genera but represents a new clade at the rank of genus in the Glomeraceae, here described as Silvaspora gen. nov.

Jasmonates modulate many growth and developmental processes and act as stress hormones that play an important role in plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, there is a need to identify the genes that are regulated through the jasmonate signalling pathway. Aquaporins, and among them the Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIPs), form the channels in cell membranes that are responsible for the precise regulation of the movement of water and other substrates between cell compartments. We identified the cis-regulatory motifs for the methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-induced genes in the promoter regions of all the HvTIP genes, which are active in barley seedlings, and thus we hypothesised that the HvTIP expression could be a response to jasmonate signalling. In the presented study, we determined the effect of methyl jasmonate on the growth parameters and photosynthesis efficiency of barley seedlings that had been exposed to different doses of MeJA (15–1000 µM × 120 h) in a hydroponic solution. All of the applied MeJA concentrations caused a significant reduction of barley seedling growth, which was most evident in the length of the first leaf sheath and dry leaf weight. The observed decrease of the PSII parameters after the exposure to high doses of MeJA (500 µM or higher) was associated with the downregulation of HvPsbR gene encoding one of the extrinsic proteins of the Oxygen Evolving Complex. The reduced expression of HvPsbR might lead to the impairment of the OEC action, manifested by the occurrence of the K-band in an analysis of fluorescence kinetics after MeJA treatment as well as reduced photosynthesis efficiency. Furthermore, methyl jasmonate treatment caused a decrease in the nitrogen content in barley leaves, which was associated with an increased expression the four tonoplast aquaporin genes (HvTIP1;2, HvTIP2;2, HvTIP4;1 and HvTIP4;2) predicted to transport the nitrogen compounds from the vacuole to the cytosol. The upregulation of the nitrogen-transporting HvTIPs might suggest their involvement in the vacuolar unloading of ammonia and urea, which both could be remobilised when the nitrogen content in the leaves decreases. Our research provides tips on physiological role of the individual TIP subfamily members of aquaporins under methyl jasmonate action.

The natural mineral resources (hard coal, sands, dolomites, lead and zinc ores) found in the Silesia and the excavation of them led to significant transformation or even degradation of the environment. The landscape of Upper Silesia was dominated by heaps created as a result of the accumulation of post-mining coal waste. These post-industrial sites are characterised by difficult conditions for the development of plant communities. Nevertheless, the heaps are spontaneously overgrowing and over time, a separate ecosystem can be observed (for heaps). The article analyzes the enzymatic activity of the substrate in relation to the selected dominant grass (Monocots) and herbaceous (Dicots) plant species. The aim of this study was to compare the activity of particular enzymes in soil substratum of the vegetation patches dominated by grass and herbaceous plants.

Jasmonates modulate many growth and developmental processes and act as stress hormones that play an important role in plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, there is a need to identify the genes that are regulated through the jasmonate signalling pathway. Aquaporins, and among them the Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIPs), form the channels in cell membranes that are responsible for the precise regulation of the movement of water and other substrates between cell compartments. We identified the cis-regulatory motifs for the methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-induced genes in the promoter regions of all the HvTIP genes, which are active in barley seedlings, and thus we hypothesised that the HvTIP expression could be a response to jasmonate signalling. In the presented study, we determined the effect of methyl jasmonate on the growth parameters and photosynthesis efficiency of barley seedlings that had been exposed to different doses of MeJA (15&ndash, 1000 &micro, M &times, 120 h) in a hydroponic solution. All of the applied MeJA concentrations caused a significant reduction of barley seedling growth, which was most evident in the length of the first leaf sheath and dry leaf weight. The observed decrease of the PSII parameters after the exposure to high doses of MeJA (500 &micro, M or higher) was associated with the downregulation of HvPsbR gene encoding one of the extrinsic proteins of the Oxygen Evolving Complex. The reduced expression of HvPsbR might lead to the impairment of the OEC action, manifested by the occurrence of the K-band in an analysis of fluorescence kinetics after MeJA treatment as well as reduced photosynthesis efficiency. Furthermore, methyl jasmonate treatment caused a decrease in the nitrogen content in barley leaves, which was associated with an increased expression the four tonoplast aquaporin genes (HvTIP1, 2, HvTIP2, 2, HvTIP4, 1 and HvTIP4, 2) predicted to transport the nitrogen compounds from the vacuole to the cytosol. The upregulation of the nitrogen-transporting HvTIPs might suggest their involvement in the vacuolar unloading of ammonia and urea, which both could be remobilised when the nitrogen content in the leaves decreases. Our research provides tips on physiological role of the individual TIP subfamily members of aquaporins under methyl jasmonate action.

Dominant species influence both species and functional composition of the vegetation as well as soil properties of the substrate. However, knowledge about the role played by dominant species in the process of shaping their habitat within post-industrial ecosystems is still limited. We aimed to assess the impact of four dominant species (Calamagrostis epigejos, Daucus carota, Poa compressa and Tussilago farfara) on soil abiotic and biotic properties, and to detect differences in species and functional composition of the vegetation types studied. We hypothesized that (1) dominant species of higher mean biomass cause lower aboveground biodiversity and (2) dominant species of higher mean biomass have a higher impact than the others on soil properties. We measured soil chemistry (TOC, N, P, K, Na, Mg content, EC, pH and enzyme activities) as well as biomass, species diversity and functional diversity of vegetation on 15 study plots (28.3 m2) for each species studied. The DCA analysis revealed a clear distinction between the patches dominated by studied species. Vegetation patches dominated by Calamagrostis epigejos were correlated with amount of biomass, canopy height CWM and specific leaf CWM. Patches dominated by Daucus carota were related to the light requirements (EIV-L), Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and K content. The vegetation patches dominated by Poa compressa were related to dehydrogenase activity, higher Mg content and species richness of the vegetation patches. The highest TOC content was recorded for T. farfara substrates, and the lowest for C. epigejos substrates. The content of potassium does not differ statistically significantly in the substrates from sites dominated by D. carota and P. compressa. The highest values of Mg content were recorded for D. carota and were statistically different from Poa compressa sites, while the higher phosphorus content (statistically significantly different) was recorded for patches dominated by T. farfara and P. compressa. Despite our assumptions, the species with the highest mean biomass (Calamagrostis epigejos) did not cause lower species or functional diversity. In contrast, Tussilago farfara has the highest impact on postindustrial site habitats on coal mine heaps, as extreme values of four soil substratum parameters were recorded on these plots. This species also decreased both species and functional diversity of vegetation. The knowledge about relationship existing between plants (aboveground vegetation) and soil organisms seems important in order to undertake suitable reclamation measures and to restore variety of functions as well as to create diverse vegetation based on native species.

The relationship between the size of the particle fractions of the soil substrate and the diversity of the spontaneously developing vegetation was investigated on coal mine spoil heaps in Upper Silesia (Southern Poland). The analyses were based on 2567 research plots of developed spontaneous vegetation and their associated soil substrate samples collected from 112 coal mine spoil heaps. For each research plot the prevailing particle size fraction was determined (stones, gravel, sand, silt), the species composition and abundance was recorded and the species richness (S), Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′), Simpson (C) and Evenness (E) indices were used to determine species diversity. From a total of 119 research plots (in all particle size fraction categories), the values of 15 physicochemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, water holding capacity, moisture, carbon content, total N, available P, Mg and exchange cations Ca, Mg, K, Na, fine particles (%), gravel (%), stone (%)) were obtained to asses their impact on the floristic composition of vegetation patches using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Additionally, functional traits of the dominant species of each vegetation patch (life forms, life strategies and socio-ecological groups), were selected to analyse their relation to substrate texture. It was shown that the highest species richness and the highest values for Shannon-Wiener diversity index, as well as Simpson and Evenness indices, were obtained in plots formed on stones. Moreover, the greatest variation in the participation of species representing different habitats, life forms, and life strategies was found on gravelly substrates. Contrary to our expectations, the vegetation diversity (in terms of both species and their functional traits) was not highest in habitats with a high composition of fine size particles.

Grasses have a considerable potential for the adaptation to various, often extreme, habitat conditions. The aim of the work was to present the vegetation diversity of the coal-mine spoil heaps with the dominant share of grasses and to identify the main factors responsible for this diversity in the aspect of post-industrial land reclamation. The communities differ in reference to the species preferences to light, moisture, soil fertility and reaction, which is reflected in the wide variety of microhabitats in the area. It was shown that the increase in the abundance of certain grass species, including Calamagrostis epigejos, Festuca rubra, Festuca arundinacea, Phragmites australis, has a significant negative impact on the species richness, species diversity and the uniformity of distribution of species of the plant community. Preliminary analyses revealed that on post-mining waste, the biomass production of the dominant species is negatively correlated with biodiversity. The knowledge about the biology and ecology of grass species, as well as on the assembly rules may be used in the reclamation of degraded areas. Gaining the knowledge about the vegetation diversity of the coal-mine spoil heaps with the dominant share of grasses can be useful in planning the reclamation works, taking into account natural processes, which leads to the creation of a permanent vegetation cover at a given site, protecting it against water or wind erosion. In the future these areas may provide a number of important ecosystem services.

This investigation was undertaken to assess the level of environment pollution by biological monitoring. The leaves and bark of popular ornamental trees Acer pseudoplatanus L. and Acer platanoides L. and soil from the sampling sites were used to perform heavy metals pollution monitoring in urban areas with different pollution sources, as well to investigate the suitability of the leaves and bark as bioindicators of Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu pollution. Plant samples were collected at nine locations classified into three pollution groups based on metal content in the soils. The chosen pollution indices were used to assess the level of contamination according to background values. Soils in the Katowice area are found to be relatively heavily contaminated with Pb, Zn and Cd. Both of the maple tree species did not statistically differ in terms of the investigated elements' concentration in leaves or bark. Only bark samples reflected the pollution level, showing differences between the sampling points, and therefore are recommended for biomonitoring purposes.