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We examined the effectiveness and efficiency of 2 instructional arrangements using progressive prompt delay (PPD) with 3 young children with autism and 1 child with developmental delays. Specifically, we compared PPD with instructive feedback (IF) to PPD without IF in an adapted alternating treatment design. The results suggested that (a) children with autism and developmental delays can learn when PPD is used with IF, (b) IF can be an effective method of instruction for young children with autism and developmental delays, and (c) the combination of PPD and IF can increase the efficiency of instruction. Data collected 8 to 9 weeks after instruction ended showed that participants maintained mastery of 58% to 92% of the acquired behaviors. We discuss these results within the constraints and limitations of the data and recommend areas for future research. (Contains 4 figures and 1 table.)

A study found that 4 boys (age 11) with mild disabilities were able to acquire the behaviors for instructive feedback stimuli when the stimuli were presented after trials on any of a set of target behaviors and could acquire instructive feedback behaviors during acquisition of or mastery of target behaviors. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

During small group instruction, two groups of children--each group comprised of one child with a disability and two without disabilities--were taught to read words using a progressive time delay procedure (PTD). Apart from the children with disabilities, two typically developing peers in each group were taught to comment on tokens given for correct responding. Academic responding was similar to that in previous studies including older children, but observational learning of peers' words was variable within and across participants. Although adequate baseline comparisons were not possible and experimental control was not demonstrated, peers and one participant with a disability exhibited variable but increasing levels of commenting over time. Commenting increased over time in one generalization context (generalization across adults) and remained at low levels in the other (generalization across materials).

Children with Down syndrome may be at increased risk of problems associated with inactivity. Early intervention to increase physical activity may lead to increased participation in typical activities and long-term increases in quality of life (e.g., decreased likelihood of obesity-related illness). A multi-component intervention, including video modeling, prompting, and behavior-specific praise, was implemented to increase the physical activity behaviors of three young children with Down syndrome on a typical preschool playground. Results, evaluated in the context of an A-B-A-B withdrawal design, showed increases in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for all children during intervention conditions. To evaluate social validity of behavior changes, average data values in each condition were graphed alongside normative comparison data of typically developing peers, showing that average MVPA for participants during intervention conditions was lower than average peer values but was within the range demonstrated by peers.

Many studies have shown that small-group direct instruction is effective and efficient for teaching students with and without disabilities, although relatively few studies have been conducted with heterogeneous groups of preschool participants. In addition, previous studies have primarily assessed whether observational learning occurred for academic behaviors directly taught to peers. In this study, we assessed target and observational learning of both academic and sharing behaviors. Results show that children with and without disabilities learned all of their own target academic behaviors and at least some of their peers' target academic behaviors, that children without disabilities learned to share by observing their typically developing peers do so, and that most participants generalized sharing to contexts similar to classroom activities.

A single-participant multiple probe design across participants was used to evaluate the effectiveness of verbal rehearsal and graduated guidance to teach youth who were blind how to cross the street. This study replicated intervention procedures across settings along with the staggered entry of participants. Individuals learned to cross one or two intersections. Maintenance was assessed, and generalization was assessed at a third intersection. Visual analysis of graphed data indicated that verbal rehearsal and graduated guidance were effective for all participants who received instruction. The participants ranged from 13 to 20 years of age and had light perception or less. All participants who received instruction maintained at levels substantially above baseline and generalized the majority of skills to a third intersection.

Plotting data from a second observer have been suggested as an alternative to presenting only mean agreement and ranges across sessions. One argument against this method of reporting is that plotting these data would not change analysis decisions by persons analyzing graphs. To empirically test this argument, we asked graduate students to analyze graphs with and without data from a second observer plotted alongside primary data. Results show that when these data are plotted: (a) observers do not change analysis decisions when both or neither paths show a functional relation, (b) observers change analysis decisions when only one path shows a functional relation, though this varied across graphs and participants, and (c) observers who did not change analysis decisions when only one path showed a functional relation often rated their decision with less confidence than when both paths showed a functional relation or when only summary statistics are reported. Findings suggest plotting data from a second observer may be helpful in making analysis decisions for A-B-A-B graphs.

A systematic analysis was conducted of measurement and reporting practices related to procedural fidelity in single-case research for the past 30 years. Previous reviews of fidelity primarily reported whether fidelity data were collected by authors; these reviews reported that collection was variable, but low across journals and over time. Results of this review indicate that fidelity data collection was variable across journals, but increasing over time. However, despite previous recommendations for doing so, authors of many studies failed to report when data were collected, for what behaviors, and for which participants. Recommendations include continued fidelity measurement, increased breadth of measurement, increased precision of measurement, and explicit reporting of fidelity data and measurement procedures by authors.

The authors describe an intervention for 3 preschoolers with disabilities who had low peer-related social competence. The intervention taught academic skills tailored to the need of each target student in small groups (triads) with two typically developing peers, using a progressive time delay procedure. Prior to instruction and separate from the students with disabilities, typical peers learned to provide reinforcers for correct responses, and to say "thank you" when a group mate shared. The authors assessed the acquisition of sharing and thanking behaviors during instructional sessions by the preschoolers with disabilities and generalization of these social behaviors to contexts similar to classroom activities for all participants. Results were (a) all participants learned targeted academic behaviors; (b) all participants learned some academic behaviors taught to their peers; (c) participants without disabilities modeled sharing with high fidelity but modeled thanking with lower fidelity; (d) all participants with disabilities shared and less frequently said "thank you" during instructional sessions (although they were never prompted to do so); and (e) participants with and without disabilities shared in art and picnic activities and said "thank you" to a lesser extent, although they were not prompted to share or thank in these contexts. (Contains 6 figures and 1 table.)

Collection of interobserver agreement data and reporting the results with summary statistics are standard practices in single-case research. An alternative to summary statistics is plotting the second observer's data on the same graph as the primary observer. In this study, we evaluated whether plotting the second observer's data differentially influenced the judgments about functional relations for A-B-A-B designs. Participants were graduate students and experts. Results suggested that (a) experts made more accurate judgments than graduate students, (b) raters made more accurate judgments for graphs with 1 rather than 2 primary data paths, and (c) raters were not influenced differentially in their judgments of functional relations by the presence or absence of the second observer's plotted data. In addition to standard hypothesis testing, equivalence testing was performed and showed accuracy of judgments was equivalent for graphs with and without the second observers' data being added.

This article focuses on early childhood classrooms in which young children with disabilities are enrolled, ideally inclusive classrooms. A foundational assumption about which most early intervention professionals would agree is that young children with disabilities learn from: (1) their experiences (interactions) with their physical environments (toys, materials, etc.); (2) their experiences (interactions) with their social environments (parents, teachers, siblings, classmates, etc.); and (3) observing events in their environments, usually others' behavior. They learn little, if anything, from what others "tell" them; lectures are highly ineffective with young children. Adults and older children may learn from being told, but young children do not. In this article, the author discusses two questions that arise from this assumption: (1) "What skills do we want children to learn?"; and (2) "How should we organize their experiences and observations so they will learn those skills?" The author's point in this article is simple: Use naturalistic teaching approaches, but one must also use multiple direct instructional sessions per child per day. A couple generations of young children with disabilities have exited their preschool classrooms with fewer skills than were possible because their interventionists only used naturalistic approaches. This state of practice is neither acceptable nor recommended. The procedures exist for doing better by the children.

Most investigators using single-case experimental designs use interobserver agreement (IOA) checks to enhance the credibility of the collected data, and they report the results of those assessments using percentage of agreement estimates. An alternative is to graph both observers' records of the measured behavior on the primary study graphs. Such graphing leads to greater transparency and is advocated for five reasons: (a) to make explicit how IOA assessments were distributed across the study, (b) to ensure agreement estimates are reported at the level of the measured behavior of interest rather than a broader observational code, (c) to detect observer drift, (d) to detect the effect of observer expectations, and (e) to put the IOA data in a more suitable context for assessing the internal validity of the study by eliminating the need for an arbitrary agreement criterion. (Contains 3 figures.)

In this article, the authors focus on issues of instruction in classrooms. Initially, a brief definitional and historic section is presented. This is followed by a discussion of four assumptions about the current state of affairs: (a) evidence-based practices should be identified and used, (b) children's phase of performance should dictate practice selection, (c) naturalistic procedures should be used, and (d) play is a defensible curricular domain. Three challenges (instructional, experimental, and resources) are noted.

The effects of structured work systems based on the principles of structured teaching were evaluated with 3 preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities (2 children had autism). A withdrawal design was used with 2 participants, and a multiple baseline across stimuli was used with the other. During baseline, children were given 3 tasks to do with no structure or guidance. During intervention, a structured work system was provided, including organization of the physical structure, visual schedule, and predictable routines. Graduated guidance was used to teach the children use of the system. Use of the structured work system produced increases in engagement and the speed and accuracy of task completion along with decreases in stereotypic behavior and escape attempts. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

This article describes a set of strategies for including children with autism in circle time. Successful inclusion involves careful planning, collaboration, and consideration of individual needs. Circle time can be a positive activity for children with autism when individual needs and strengths are considered. Environmental modifications and accommodations are selected in collaboration with the child's team and based on individual strengths and needs. Additional examinations of successful circle time accommodations for young children with autism are encouraged, particularly across children from various cultural backgrounds and with a variety of language repertoires. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

Adequate street crossing skills reduce the risk of injury and increase the functional independence of individuals with disabilities. This paper reviews research involving instructional interventions for street crossings with individuals with disabilities. Eight studies were included. There was evidence individuals could be taught street crossings using classroom based interventions, roadside instruction, or virtual reality technology. Classroom based methods were successful when involving strategies which promoted generalization of skills. Task analysis found the steps involved in street crossing included: stopping at the curb, looking left and right, walking quickly, walking within the crosswalk, and continuing to look left and right. A variety of instructional strategies were used, but the small body of literature did not allow clear identification of superior strategies. (Contains 4 tables.)

A within-subjects group experimental design was used to test whether three manipulated characteristics of multiple baseline across participants (MBL-P) data showing at least a month delayed change in slope affected experts' inference of a functional relation and agreement on this judgment. Thirty-six experts completed a survey composed of 16 MBL-P graphs. Graphs with steep slopes, once change began, were far more likely to be judged as showing a functional relation. Generally, experts disagreed with each other regarding functional relation judgments. Implications for the types of dependent variables that fit the requirements of MBL-P are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 5 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using a constant time delay procedure to teach foundational swimming skills to three children with autism. The skills included flutter kick, front-crawl arm strokes, and head turns to the side. A multiple-probe design across behaviors and replicated across participants was used. Results of the study indicated that the constant time delay procedure was effective in teaching foundational swimming skills to the three children. Implications for future research and practice are presented. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

Four overlap methods for quantitatively synthesizing single-subject data were compared to visual analysts' judgments. The overlap methods were percentage of nonoverlapping data, pairwise data overlap squared, percentage of data exceeding the median, and percentage of data exceeding a median trend. Visual analysts made judgments about 160 A-B data sets selected randomly from the "Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis." The four overlap methods were compared for data sets in which all visual analysts agreed a change in data occurred or a change did not occur across conditions. Each overlap method had unacceptably high levels of errors. Given the findings and weaknesses of the overlap methods, their use should be abandoned. The desirable characteristics of a quantitative synthesis method are described. (Contains 4 figures and 3 tables.)

A multiple probe design was used to examine the relation between teachers' use of the system of least prompts, contingent imitation, and praise, and the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of pretend play by 4 children with disabilities. The teachers' use of the intervention package was functionally related to increases in the children's frequency and diversity of pretense behaviors, including related vocalizations. Children also maintained the responses in probes without prompts and generalized them to sessions with a nonteacher adult. The findings replicate previous studies on adult prompting of pretend play and extend the literature by using taxonomy of pretense to measure pretend play, measuring teachers' fidelity of implementation, and assessing maintenance and generalization of children's pretend play. (Contains 5 tables and 4 figures.)

A 3-part comprehensive synthesis of the early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism based on the University of California at Los Angeles Young Autism Project method (Lovaas in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3-9, 1987) is presented. The three components of the synthesis were: (a) descriptive analyses, (b) effect size analyses, and (c) a meta-analysis. The findings suggest EIBI is an effective treatment, on average, for children with autism. The conditions under which this finding applies and the limitations and cautions that must be taken when interpreting the results are discussed within the contextual findings of the moderator analyses conducted in the meta-analysis.

Children who have autism have an increased risk for food selectivity. In this study, the effects of a therapeutic feeding intervention, implemented within the parameters of a gluten-free/casein-free diet, on the food consumption of a 5.5-year-old boy with autism were assessed. The treatment package used combined task direction, contingent reinforcement, physical prompts, and procedures to introduce food gradually based on the frequency with which the food was offered to the child and the percentage of times he accepted the food (e.g., from food consumed daily 100% of the time to new food items likely to be rejected). During intervention, number and variety of foods consumed increased from baseline. The child's mother was highly satisfied with the intervention. Implications are discussed. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Simultaneous prompting is a response-prompting procedure requiring two daily sessions: an instructional session in which a controlling prompt is provided on all trials, and a probe session in which no prompt is provided on any trials. In this study, two schedules of conducting the probe sessions (daily vs. every fourth day) were compared using the adapted alternating treatments design. Four children enrolled in an inclusive preschool program participated in the study and were taught two sets of behavior. The results showed that 3 of 4 participants acquired the target behaviors under both probing conditions, and 1 participant acquired the target behaviors only in the every-fourth-day probing condition. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

Experimental research involves comparing two or more conditions. One of those conditions in single subject research is often the baseline. Adequate description of the baseline conditions is necessary for evaluating the effects of independent variables, drawing generalizations from studies, and providing information for subsequent replication studies. Suggestions are made about the types of information to include when describing baseline conditions in research reports. (Contains 1 table.)

This study evaluated the effects of individually composed songs on the independent behaviors of two young children with autism during the morning greeting/entry routine into their inclusive classrooms. A music therapist composed a song for each child related to the steps of the morning greeting routine and taught the children's teachers to sing the songs during the routine. The effects were evaluated using a single subject withdrawal design. The results indicate that the songs, with modifications for one child, assisted the children in entering the classroom, greeting the teacher and/or peers and engaging in play. For one child, the number of peers who greeted him was also measured, and increased when the song was used.

Graphs are vital components for analyzing data in the experimental analysis of behavior using single subject research methods. This paper extends the previous literature on the construction of single subject graphs by providing instructions for using Microsoft[R] Power Point[TM] and Microsoft[R] PowerPoint for Mac[R], and describes improved reporting practices for visual presentation of single subject experimental data. Detailed instructions are provided for constructing line graphs for displaying single subject data, specialized graphs (i. e., semi-logarithmic, dual ordinate, and line and bar combination graphs), and electronically submitting graphs to journals for publication.

The effects of e-mail feedback with written verbatim examples and frequency counts of expansions on pre-service teachers' verbal behaviors were examined in two studies. In Experiment I, e-mail feedback on the use of expansions was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across 3 undergraduate early childhood special education students. Results indicated a systematic relation between the e-mail feedback and the participant's use of expansions. Experiment II was a systematic replication of Experiment I. E-mail feedback on the use of expansions and specific praise was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across 3 student teachers. Results were similar to Experiment I. Student teachers' use of expansions displayed more variability than the practicum students. Implications for (a) the identification of effective practices for university supervisors, (b) the use of e-mail to communicate between supervisors and pre-service teachers, (c) future research on feedback, and (d) methods for conducting systematic replications are discussed. (Contains 6 figures and 5 tables.)

This study evaluated the effectiveness of point-of-view video modeling in teaching selected toy-play skills to two preschoolers with autism. This type of modeling involved the experimenters carrying or holding the video camera at eye level (from the child's perspective) and without recording models (persons]) to show the environment as a child would see it when he or she was performing the targeted skills. The researchers used a multiple-probe design across two children and two behaviors to evaluate the effect of the point-of-view modeling on the children's acquisition and maintenance of play actions. They used generalization probes to assess the degree to which the participants used the new skills across novel toys and during classroom activities. The results indicated that point-of-view modeling was an effective tool for teaching toy-play actions to preschoolers with autism. The authors discuss the extension of current video modeling research and implications for home and school interventions.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a prompt versus no prompt condition in combination with a peer-directed intervention package that targeted children with low language or behavior problems. The current study (a) tested two conditions of a multi-component intervention package to increase social interaction between peers, and (b) evaluated which condition of the intervention increased the use of positive verbalizations, social pragmatic strategies, and specific language forms. An alternating treatments design was used to compare the two variations of the intervention. Results of the study indicated no differential effects between the prompt and no prompt conditions. While the study does not add to the literature supporting the use of prompts in social interaction, results comparing baseline to intervention performance show promise for improving preschoolers' social communication skills. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

The effects of an intervention designed to facilitate interactions between two older, typically developing children and their younger siblings with Down syndrome were investigated using a multiple-baseline design across behaviors and participants. The researchers used written materials, modeling, role play, and oral feedback to teach two responsive interaction strategies to the typically developing children. Following the intervention, the older children demonstrated the ability to use the responsive interaction strategies; modest changes also were observed in the communicative behaviors of their siblings with Down syndrome. The older children maintained their newly learned behaviors at a 1-month follow-up assessment. This study adds to the literature regarding the effects of teaching siblings to implement naturalistic communication strategies with children who have language delays.

This study evaluated embedding and distributing constant time delay instructional trials into circle time and transitions between activities in a summer camp program. Three boys (ages 5-8) with disabilities or behavior problems participated. Results indicated the children acquired the behaviors they were taught and generalized the learned behaviors across adults and materials. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)