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The authors contribute to the ongoing debate about the existence of a female leadership advantage by specifying contextual factors that moderate the likelihood of the emergence of such an advantage. The investigation considered whether the perceived role incongruence between the female gender role and the leader role led to a female leader disadvantage (as predicted by role congruity theory) or whether instead a female leader advantage would emerge (as predicted by double standards and stereotype content research). In Study 1, it was only when success was internally attributed that women top leaders were evaluated as more agentic and more communal than men top leaders. Study 2 showed that the favorable ratings were unique to top-level positions and further showed that the effect on agentic traits was mediated by perceptions of double standards, while the effect on communal traits was mediated by expectations of feminized management skills. Finally, Study 2 showed that top women leaders were evaluated most favorably on overall leader effectiveness, and this effect was mediated by both mediators. Our results support the existence of a qualified female leadership advantage. Keywords: gender and leadership, role congruity, agentic and communal traits, female leader advantage, stereotype content DOI: 10.1037/a0018204

Attitudes towards ambition in women and a psychiatric analysis of how women perceive ambition are presented. Women tend to question their abilities even when their performance is superior to their male colleagues and do not like to be associated with ambition, which they perceive as a masculine trait.

A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female leaders were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness.

This examination of 2 managerial studies shows that the roles women managers play in their lives are related to their self esteem, life satisfaction and self acceptance.

As women increasingly enter leadership roles that traditionally have been occupied mainly by men, the possibility that the leadership styles of women and men differ continues to attract attention. The focus of these debates on sameness versus difference can obscure the array of causal factors that can produce differences or similarities. Adopting the perspective of social role theory, we offer a framework that encompasses many of the complexities of the empirical literature on the leadership styles of women and men. Supplementing Eagly and Johnson's (1990) review of the interpersonally oriented, task-oriented, autocratic, and democratic styles of women and men, we present new data concerning the transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles.

This review article reveals that men are generally more influential than women, although the gender difference depends on several moderators. Relative to men, women are particularly less influential when using dominant forms of communication, whereas the male advantage in influence is reduced in domains that are traditionally associated with the female role and in group settings in which more than one woman or girl is present. Males in particular resist influence by women and girls more than females do, especially when influence agents employ highly competent styles of communication. Resistance to competent women can be reduced, however, when women temper their competence with displays of communality and warmth.

In the early 1970s Schein identified managerial sex typing as a major psychological barrier to the advancement of women in the United States. The globalization of management brings to the forefront the need to examine the relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics in the international arena. A review of the replications of the Schein research in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, China, and Japan provides the basis for a global look at the 'think manager-think male' phenomenon. Implications of the outcomes, especially among males, for women's progress in management worldwide are discussed.

Gender stereotypes regarding task competence may lead perceivers to set different standards for diagnosing competence in women versus men. Specifically, stereotypes may prompt lower minimum standards (or initial screening criteria) but higher confirmatory standards for women than men (Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997). In two studies simulating hiring decisions, predictions were that women would be (1) more likely than men to make a short list for a job but (2) less likely than men to be hired for the same job. Results were generally consistent with predictions only among female participants (Studies 1 and 2), among those exposed to a female experimenter (Study 1), and among those held accountable for their decisions (Study 2). The role of motivational factors in the setting of standards is discussed.

The purpose of the present study is to examine how the numerical restructuring of the workforce affects the experiences of women within management. Research suggests that when considering numerical restructuring, [...]

Adapting corporate incentives to the likes and dislikes of managers can increase management's productivity. Managers will be more likely to perform unpleasant tasks if they receive incentives for their actions. Managers like to network with other managers, encourage and direct employees, and improve the company through new ideas. They do not enjoy paperwork, disciplining or appraising employees, or their job's time constraints. The survey of 1,174 Australian and American managers found few gender or country variations in the responses.

In a laboratory setting, 135 undergraduate students (69 male, 66 female; approximately 98% white) completed a mock class scheduling task led by a female confederate who was chosen either preferentially or by merit. Results indicated that (1) subordinate evaluations of female leader performance were not affected by preferential selection, but were significantly related to degree of non-traditional views held toward female managers; (2) commitment to the goal assigned by the female leader was not lessened by preferential selection, but also was significantly related to degree of non-traditional views toward female managers; and (3) subordinate performance on the scheduling task was significantly related to commitment to the leader-assigned goal.

Stability and replicability of a stress-coping model were tested with data collected from 230 managerial women 8 times over a 1-year period. One year later, 135 women who remained in the study completed 3 additional assessments. Tests of mean stability, stability of individual differences, and factorial invariance revealed that virtually all constructs exhibited strong mean stability and that all multi-indicator constructs possessed stable factor loadings. The women were consistent in the way they described themselves over time on all constructs except Appraisals. Disengagement Coping, Appraisals, and Distress were affected more by an underlying trait not accounted for in the model than was Engagement Coping. Replicability indicated that the model reliably represented the relationships among the measures over a 2-year interval.

This study examined the relationship among psychological variables and organizational functioning in a sample of managers, 65 women and 65 men. Analysis of responses to a mail questionnaire showed women, compared to men, were higher on Type A behaviour, speed and impatience, and job involvement scale scores. Women were less likely to have families than men, and men appeared to benefit more from marriage. Men also reported higher salaries with greater family support. These results support the need for research to take into account the social context within which organizational and work behaviour takes place., An analysis of the relation between psychological factors and organizational operation in 65 male and 65 female managers confirmed the importance of recognizing the social context within which work and organizational behavior occurs. Men were lower than women on Type A behavior, speed, impatience and job involvement scale scores. Men were more likely to have families than women. Women seemed to gain less from marriage.

A comparison of media portrayal of male and female managers' rhetorical vision in Singapore is made. Content analysis of newspaper articles used to make this comparison also reveals the inherent conflicts that women managers have to face. Purposive and multistage sampling of articles from 'The Strait Times,' 'The Sunday Times' and 'The Business Times' is utilized. The results indicate that the press emphasizes these role and behavioral conflicts in the case of female subjects, whereas in the case of male managers, focus remains on managerial competencies. In addition, while male managers' success is portrayed as dependent upon the individual, women managers are perceived to need a supportive spouse, a male mentor and househelp to be able to achieve success.

This study employed a quota sample of 200 black and white professional-managerial women from the Memphis, Tennessee, area to explore the relationships among occupational stress, social support, and well-being. Data were gathered through face-to-face, focused life history interviews. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD). Social support for one's career was assessed from three sources: family, friends, and co-workers, and measures of occupational stress included workload, unfair/impersonal treatment, and trouble with boss or subordinates. Using multiple regression techniques, the findings of this study indicate that there are complex differences in levels of social support, occupational stress, and depression across social structural dimensions (race, class background, supervisory status, marital status, parental status) for this sample, including significant two-and three-way interactions. Trouble with boss or subordinates was also found to be related to levels of depression. Career support from friends, co-workers, and family, on the other hand, did not directly benefit the women's well-being or lessen the damaging effects of interpersonal job conflict on their mental health.

This study sought to demonstrate that observed differences between the compliance-gaining tactics of male and female managers are attributable to differences in the degree of request legitimacy possessed by those individuals rather than their sex, per se. Four hypotheses, derived from power resource theory and politeness theory, were tested through the use of hypothetical compliance-gaining scenarios administered to 86 men and 83 women middle managers. The findings of the study indicate that request legitimacy exerts a main effect on both the directness and politeness aspects of tactics employed by male and female managers. As expected, no main effects for the sex of the anager, nor that of the target, were observed. However, sex of the manager interacted with request legitimacy such that the tactics of women in the low-legitimacy condition produced more direct tactics than their male counterparts, while men in the high-legitimacy condition produced more direct and less polite tactics than their female counterparts.

Attention to gender and the impact of perceived female/male differences on vocational choices, vocational behavior, and career opportunity peaked in the late 1970s and seemed to reach a plateau with the conclusion that most workplace gender differences can be accounted for by other variables, for example, job tenure and organizational level. Women who entered the workplace in the mid 1970s are now reaching the middle levels of organizations and provide a cohort group on which to test this hypothesis. This study examines gender comparisons on paper-and-pencil personality tests and interest surveys in a group of executive-level adults representing a wide variety of industries and job functions. Gender comparisons are discussed either as a function of occupational choice or membership in a minority group. Acknowledging and explaining gender differences where they exist can provide women with validation and support for their own experience.

This research investigated the extent to which an applicant's clothing influenced interviewer's perceptions of management characteristics and decisions to hire women for management positions. One hundred nine respondents (from marketing and banking) viewed color videotapes of four women applicants interviewing for a management position. The applicants were wearing one of four experimental costumes which differed in masculinity. The respondents were wearing one of four experimental costumes which differed in masculinity. The respondents rated each applicant on five management characteristics and made hiring recommendations for each applicant. Clothing masculinity was significant in predicting the perception of all the management characteristics examined. Applicants were perceived as more forceful, aggressive and so on when wearing more masculine clothing. Applicants also received more favorable hiring recommendations when wearing more masculine clothing. The mediating effect of the respondent's gender and occupation on perception of management characteristics and hiring decisions was not significant. The findings are discussed from an integrated conceptual framework.

I examined sex-typed traits (instrumentality and expressiveness), the work environment (demands and interpersonal resources), and importance of stressor episodes as predictors of 3 measures of coping (avoidance, problem reappraisal, and active problem solving) derived from a modified Ways of Coping Checklist. The data were collected from 132 managers (60 men and 72 women). Sex-typed trait measures and demographic information were assessed 1 month before the assessment of the work environment, stressful episodes, and coping responses. Women, compared with men, were more likely to use avoidance and problem-reappraisal coping, whereas there were no gender differences with regard to active problem-solving coping. Multiple regression analyses showed that sex-typed traits, the work environment, and episode importance were significant precitors of the coping scores after the effects of sex were removed, and that patterns of effects were different for each type of coping.

This study compared the work and career experiences of Filipino professional and managerial women with men and women supervisors. Data were collected from 200 women working in banking and financial services and the fashion and cosmetics sectors. Sex of supervisor was not associated with Filipino women's work and career experiences.

This study compared supervisors' support reported by Filipino managerial women having women or men as supervisors and supervisors' support reported by Filipino and Canadian managerial women. Filipino managerial women received significantly more support from women than men as supervisors, and Filipino managerial women received significantly more support than did Canadian women.

This study examined correlates of career-priority patterns, anchored at the extremes by career-primary and career-family orientations, among 104 managerial and professional women in Singapore. Data were collected using anonymously completed questionnaires. Career-family women were more likely to have worked parttime in their careers, were at lower organizational levels, and reported less job involvement than did career-primary women. There were no differences on a variety of individual demographic and work-situation characteristics in job and career satisfaction and measures of psychological well-being.

This study extended a previously developed integrative model of workplace stress by focusing specifically on interpersonal stressors. After controlling for negative affect, results of the prospective study of 157 Canadian managerial women indicated that conflicts appraised as threats to self-interest, less perceived control over the stressor, and more upsetting appraisals led to the use of disengagement coping, whereas conflicts appraised as threats to social relationships and greater control were associated with the use of engagement coping. Individual differences were also associated with primary appraisals and perceptions of the work environment. Primary appraisals had both direct and indirect effects on psychosomatic distress and fully mediated the effects of individual differences on distress.

The relationship between locus of control and occupational level was investigated for middle-management (n = 20) and nonmanagement (n = 41) women employed at a financial services company. No significant difference was found between the groups for locus of control or for social desirability. Significant correlations were found for the nonmanagement group between externality and schooling (r = .39), years of service (r = .42), and social desirability (r = .47), but none were found for women in middle management. A significant moderate correlation of -.39 was obtained between locus of control and social desirability for all 61 women.