Search

Highlights • Development of a techno-economic and environmental assessment model. • Assessment of 16 residential ground source heat pumps combined with PV and batteries. • Direct use of PV by ground source heat pumps of 19% and emission reduction of 80%. • Additional policy measurements are required for profitable heat pump investments. Abstract Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) have been suggested to replace gas-based heating in urban environments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help to comply with the Paris Agreement. The emission reduction from GSHP depends on the carbon intensity of the electricity generation mix. Moreover, grid capacity may be limiting the introduction of these high-electricity demand GSHP systems. Photovoltaics (PV) systems help to provide additional emission reductions for residential GSHP systems. Battery energy storage systems can reduce the peak demand and allow for more GSHPs within the low voltage grid. We developed a techno-economic and environmental assessment model to quantify this impact of PV and batteries combined with residential GSHP systems. Measured demand data of 16 dwellings with GSHP and PV systems from the Netherlands were used. We show that PV can provide around 19% of the GSHP demand, while batteries enhance this by 53% and reduce the peak demand by 45%. Greenhouse gas emission of a GSHP with PV is reduced on average with 73 tCO 2 -eq, corresponding to a 80% reduction, over a 30-year lifetime. Dwellings with only a GSHP system have a net present values increase of around € 275 per tCO 2 -eq of avoided emission. This is reduced to € 230 per tCO 2 -eq when PV and storage is added to the system. Nevertheless, investment in GSHP systems today is not economically attractive for many dwellings. A sensitivity analysis showed that policies should focus on increasing natural gas tariffs, carbon taxation, investment subsidies or combinations of these routes to encourage sustainable heating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residential and commercial photovoltaic (PV) battery systems are increasingly being deployed for local storage of excess produced PV energy. However, battery systems aimed at increasing self-consumption are not constantly put to use. Additional battery storage capacity is available for a second application to improve the profitability of an energy storage system. One of these options is the provision of frequency restoration reserves (FRR) to the electricity balancing market. This provision can be either negative to compensate for excess power supply, or positive to compensate for excess demand on the power market. This study assesses the benefits for residential and commercial PV-battery systems by combining PV energy storage for higher self-consumption with provision of FRR. Six battery storage dispatch strategies were developed and assessed on the technical and economic performance of 48 residential and 42 commercial PV-battery systems. These systems were modelled over their economic lifetime with a time resolution of 5 min and with historical energy consumption measurements and market prices. FRR provision results in a small drop in the self-consumption rate of 0.5%. However annual revenues are significantly increased. Using battery storage systems only for self-consumption is not profitable with the assumptions used in this study. Provision of negative FRR substantially reduces the electricity bought with the consumption tariff and increases investment attractiveness substantially. Prioritizing the provision of FRR over self-consumption enhancement results in even higher revenues, but significantly reduces self-consumption. We recommend FRR provision to economically investment in residential battery storage systems. Commercial systems need prioritization of both positive and negative FRR provision over self-consumption for a cost-effective investment. In conclusion, combining enhancement of PV self-consumption with the provision of frequency restoration reserves leads to profitable investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photovoltaic (PV) systems are increasingly deployed on buildings in urban areas, causing additional power flows and frequency fluctuation on the low voltage electricity grid. Control strategies for PV-battery energy storage systems (BESS) assist in reducing power flows to the grid and improve the self-consumption of PV generated electricity. Therefore, these control strategies require accurate forecasts of PV electricity production and electricity consumption. We developed and assessed relatively simple forecasting methods using 5 min resolution data, to predict the PV yield and to forecast electricity consumption for one year. We used these forecasts with a predictive control strategy to increase PV self-consumption, decrease curtailment losses and improve BESS revenues. Electricity demand patterns of 48 residential and 42 commercial Dutch buildings were used. PV yield forecast methods that uses predicted weather data shows the lowest forecast error. The best performing forecast method for predicting energy consumption of residential buildings requires historical energy consumption data of the previous seven days. Commercial systems require historical energy consumption of the previous weekday. Significant reduction in curtailment losses is achieved using predictive control strategies, especially in combination when clear-sky radiation data is used to forecast PV yield. Similar self-consumption rates were found for predictive control as for real-time control. This indicates that reduction of curtailment loss can be combined while maintaining the level of PV self-consumption. Revenues from battery storage are increased by forecast methods and are highly dependable on boundary condition of a PV-battery system, such as the feed-in limit (FIL) and the feed-in tariff. Therefore, we recommend customizing battery control strategies based on these system boundaries conditions to improve energy storage potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photovoltaic (PV) systems are usually orientated to maximize annual energy yield. This may not optimize other system indicators, specifically: direct consumption of self-generated PV power, reduced feed-in power and annual revenue. Also, these indicators are influenced by the energy demand of a building in relation to the PV system size. Therefore, we evaluate how demand patterns influence the optimal PV orientation for self-consumption, feed-in power and revenue. Historical Dutch demand patterns of 48 residential and 42 commercial buildings were used. We combined Dutch and German electricity prices from day-ahead markets with different ratios of electricity sales to purchase prices. Differences between demand patterns caused large variations in optimal PV orientations. On average, PV self-consumption is maximized for residential systems with an azimuth of 212° and a tilt of 26°. Commercial PV systems have an average of 188° azimuth and 17° tilt. Self-consumption can be increased 5.4% for residential systems and 2.7% for commercial systems, by optimizing orientation for self-consumption rather than for energy production. Curtailment losses are significant reduced by decreasing the module tilt angles. Optimizing for revenue can increase annual revenue of PV systems with 5.4% for certain demand patterns and pricing scenarios. The ratio of sales to purchase electricity price has a larger influence on the economically optimal orientation for residential systems than for commercial systems. Differences between Dutch and German market prices have minor effects on PV orientation. Analysed demand patterns significantly affect optimal PV orientation. Therefore, we recommend that optimal PV orientation should not only be based on maximizing energy production, but also on expected demand patterns and market prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We try to understand the role of technological change and diffusion of energy efficient technologies in order to explain the trend of energy intensity developments in the German steel industry. We selected six key energy efficient technologies and collected data to derive their diffusion since their introduction in Germany. Since all technologies have been applied in Germany for more than 30 years we would expect complete diffusion. We found complete diffusion only for basic oxygen furnaces and continuous casting. Newer technologies (i.e. basic oxygen furnace gas recovery, top pressure recovery turbine, coke dry quenching and pulverized coal injection) diffused quicker in the initial phase but then diffusion slowed down. Key improvements in energy efficiency are due to electric arc furnaces (24%), basic oxygen furnaces (12%), and continuous casting (6%) between 1958 and 2012. The contribution of top pressure recovery turbines, pulverized coal injection and basic oxygen furnaces gas recovery accounts in total of about 3%. If the selected technologies were diffused completely, the future energy consumption could be reduced by 4.5% compared to 2012. Our findings suggest that our selection of six technologies is the key driver for energy intensity developments within the German steel industry between 1958 and 2012. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A critical review of the literature highlighted the need for a new taxonomy encompassing the most relevant barriers stemmed from previous studies, and accounting for interactions and independences of the barriers to avoid overlaps and implicit interactions. Based on an extensive literature review the paper provides a novel approach for barriers to the adoption of industrial energy-efficient technologies, coping with the issues risen by the review of the literature. We developed a taxonomy adaptable to empirical research, and able to evaluate the differences between perceived and real barriers, the effect of the barriers on decision-making processes, and the interactions among barriers. We modeled three types of interactions, i.e., causal relationship, composite effect and hidden effect, in order to start analyzing the dynamics among barriers, and tested the taxonomy in a preliminary investigation. The study proposes a useful instrument both to enterprises and policy-makers to identify critical factors to improve industrial energy efficiency and to open the research to further investigation in this topic. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Analyzing the chemical industry’s energy use is challenging because of the sector’s complexity and the prevailing uncertainty in energy use and production data. We develop an advanced bottom-up model (PIE-Plus) which encompasses the energy use of the 139 most important chemical processes. We apply this model in a case study to analyze the German basic chemical industry’s energy use and energy efficiency improvements in the period between 1995 and 2008. We compare our results with data from the German Energy Balances and with data published by the International Energy Agency (IEA). We find that our model covers 88% of the basic chemical industry’s total final energy use (including non-energy use) as reported in the German Energy Balances. The observed energy efficiency improvements range between 2.2 and 3.5% per year, i.e., they are on the higher side of the values typically reported in literature. Our results point to uncertainties in the basic chemical industry’s final energy use as reported in the energy statistics and the specific energy consumption values. More efforts are required to improve the quality of the national and international energy statistics to make them useable for reliable monitoring of energy efficiency improvements of the chemical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Improved energy efficiency is among the key measures for CO2 emission abatement in the industry. Energy benchmark curves provide data measured at individual plants and they offer a basis to estimate the sectoral energy efficiency improvement potentials (IP) compared to a best practice technology (BPT) currently in operation worldwide. In this paper, we estimate the BPT energy use of 17 industry sectors based on such curves or energy indicators prepared at country-level. We compare BPT data with current energy use to estimate the IP. According to our analysis, BPT offers improvement potentials of 27±8% worldwide. This is equivalent to 32.5±9.6EJ (exajoules) of final energy savings worldwide, of which three-quarters can be achieved in developing countries. Due to lack of benchmark curves and limited data availability for developing countries, our results include uncertainties. We used literature data at country-level and international energy statistics to fill data gaps and to develop energy indicators. Quality of these data should be improved and benchmark data needs to be collected for more sectors. By doing so, energy benchmarking could become a key tool to estimate energy saving potentials and energy indicators could serve as strong supplementary methodology. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the EU28, the meat and dairy supply chains emitted 360 Mt CO 2 -eq or 80% of all agricultural CH 4 and N 2 O emissions in 2016, which must be reduced to reach net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Our research explores how far these emissions can be reduced by combining field tested mitigation measures for beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine, sheep, and synthetic fertilizers. Many mitigation measures targeting enteric fermentation, manure management, and fertilizer application have been experimentally tested; however, the impact of combining measures is relatively unexplored. To address this knowledge gap, we use graph theory to create combinations of measures for which we calculate the overall mitigation potential. From previous review studies, we identified 44 measures and formulated rules on impossible and mandatory combinations of measures. Based on the resulting sets of feasible cliques in the graphs and a simplified technological baseline, we estimate that the combinations with the highest reductions reduce CH 4 and N 2 O emissions from beef cattle by 57%, dairy cattle by 47%, swine by 70%, sheep by 48%, and synthetic fertilizers by 44%. Together, they can reduce CH 4 and N 2 O emissions in the EU28 from meat and dairy production by 54%, and for agriculture overall by 42%. This indicates that implementing more measures in the meat and dairy sectors can create room for further reduction than in the existing modelled pathways for the EU28. However, technical measures are incapable of fully eliminating agricultural CH 4 and N 2 O, so there remains a need for CO 2 removal technologies. • Highest mitigating combinations reduce CH 4 from EU28 meat and dairy production by 62%. • Highest mitigating combinations reduce N 2 O from EU28 meat and dairy production by 32%. • The best combinations reduce CH 4 and N 2 O in CO 2 -eq from meat and dairy by 54%. • Implementing the best combinations reduces agricultural CH 4 and N 2 O in CO 2 -eq by 42%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copper and nickel are important metals for our society. Developing countries depend on copper and nickel for the construction of their infrastructure. Copper and nickel are also key elements for the transition to a fossil free electric energy production, which might lead to increased demand for these metals. The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether and at which conditions a sustainable production rate of copper and nickel can be combined with an increase of the service level of the two metals for the entire future world population to the same level as in developed countries in 2020. We consider three ambition levels with regard to a sustainable production rate for copper and nickel: 1000 years, 500 years and 200 years of guaranteed, sufficient and affordable supply to the entire world population at a service level, which, in all countries, is equal to the service level in developed countries in 2020. The conclusion is that the highest sustainability ambition (1000 years) is only achievable with a combination of an optimistically large amount of available resources in combination with a high end-of-life recycling rate. Whether the required amount of resources will be available for an affordable price, remains uncertain. • Three ambition levels with regard to long term supply of copper and nickel are considered: 1000, 500 and 200 years. • The aspiration: resources are available for the entire world population at the level of developed countries in 2020. • The amount of available copper and nickel resources is uncertain. • The resources necessary for providing the world sufficiently depend on the recycling rate and the ambition level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sound evaluation needs sound numbers. But measuring energy savings is measuring something that is not used and can meet unexpected difficulties. The European Commission has made strong efforts to harmonize methods to measure energy efficiency and energy savings and to monitor the progress towards the goals of the Energy Efficiency Directive. However, in practice, multiple methods are still used, which may lead to confusion. In this paper, we use the Netherlands as a case study to analyze this phenomenon. In the Netherlands, three national indicators on energy efficiency exist, next to a European indicator next to the impact of individual policy instruments. The large differences and sometimes contradictory results of the different indicators lead to questions about what is the "best" method. This paper studies the reasons behind the differences between the methods used for industrial energy efficiency improvement in the Netherlands. It compares detailed bottom-up data from individual policy instruments with top-down national figures. We disentangle the impact of volume, efficiency, and structure effects. In this way, we visualize the differences between several methods and the impact of the choice of metrics used in those methods. This helps understanding why care should be taken when comparing industrial energy efficiency results from different countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Development of a spatio-temporal framework for residential PV power integration. • Assessment of the impact of battery storage and electric vehicles on PV integration. • Variations identified in self-consumption and avoided emissions among neighbourhoods. • PV integration policies should focus on areas with high PV potential and low demand. Abstract Cities have a significant potential to host residential photovoltaic systems (PV). The direct consumption of PV generated electricity reduces the need for electricity import, while excess PV electricity production can be stored for later usage or can be used directly to charge electric vehicles (EVs). In this way, more energy is locally consumed, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, and self-sufficiency of cities can be increased. In this paper, we present a spatio-temporal framework to evaluate the electricity demand that can be fulfilled by PV energy. We assess the impact of penetration of EVs and the influence of battery energy storage. We demonstrate the usefulness of this framework for 88 neighbourhoods in the city of Utrecht, the Netherlands. Spatial mapping was used to identify areas with high potential for EVs and storage. Results shows that direct PV self-consumption ratios vary between 34% and 100%. When EVs charging is included in the neighbourhoods, then self-consumption is increased on average by 12%. Battery energy storage increases the self-consumption with an average of 25%. The self-sufficiencies due to direct PV energy consumption are between 6% and 40% in the neighbourhoods. These are decreased by EVs with an average of −0.6%, and increased by battery energy storage with an average of 14%. Avoided life cycle greenhouse gas emissions over a 30-year period are on average 12 tCO 2 -eq per address. The large variation in results between neighbourhoods indicates that area dependent investments and supporting policies could improve the PV power integration in cities. Our developed framework can be easily adapted and used for other cities. Moreover, our results are useful for local governments to guide and design effective policies to accelerate the transition to more sustainable cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU building sector is widely acknowledged as a primary source of anthropogenic emissions, contributing directly to climate change. Recent studies estimate the sector to account for approximately 40% of primary energy use and 50% of extracted materials within the European Union. The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU requires efficiency improvements to be implemented in all new EU buildings, with a requirement that from 2020 all new buildings constructed should be “nearly energy zero”. From this stance the embodied energy of a building, when taking a full life-cycle perspective, is gaining importance and will become a more dominant issue to tackle when striving for sector-wide reduction in the coming years. This research took the UK as a case study and investigated where reduction measures are most suited to reduce material and energy consumption. The study proposes four reduction measures strategically focusing on hotspots of excessive consumption. The findings demonstrate that significant reductions can be achieved for the UK building sector's annual material and embodied energy consumption in the short to midterm, with projections estimating resource and embodied energy savings respectively of 4.7% and 6.4% by 2020 and 9.3% and 28.6% by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Accurate knowledge on the technical potential for Building Integrated PhotoVoltaics (BIPV) in the various member states of the European Union is unavailable. To estimate the potential for BIPV we developed a method using readily available statistical data on buildings from European databases. Based on country-specific data on building characteristics and irradiation we estimate the BIPV technical potential in the EU-27 at 951GWp. Installed it can deliver about 840TWh of electricity, which is equivalent to more than 22% of the expected European 2030 annual electricity demand. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The chemical and petrochemical sector is by far the largest industrial energy user, accounting for 30% of the industry’s total final energy use. However, due to its complexity its energy efficiency potential is not well understood. This article analyses the energy efficiency potential on a country level if Best Practice Technologies (BPT) were implemented in chemical processes. Two approaches are applied and an improved dataset referring to Europe has been developed for BPT energy use. This methodology has been applied to 66 products in fifteen countries that represent 70% of chemical and petrochemical sector’s energy use worldwide. The results suggest a global energy efficiency potential of 16% for this sector, excluding savings in electricity use and by higher levels of process integration, combined heat and power (CHP) and post-consumer plastic waste treatment. The results are more accurate than previous estimates. The results suggest significant differences between countries, but a cross-check based on two different methods shows that important methodological and data issues remain to be resolved. Further refinement is needed for target setting, monitoring and informing energy and climate negotiation processes. For the short and medium term, a combination of benchmarking and country level analysis is recommended. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In 1996, China manufactured just over 100 Mt of steel and became the world''s largest steel producer. Official Chinese energy consumption statistics for the steel industry include activities not directly associated with the production of steel, ‘double-count’ some coal-based energy consumption, and do not cover the entire Chinese steelmaking industry. In this paper, we make adjustements to the reported statistical data in order to provide energy use values for steel production in China that are comparable to statistics used internationally. We find that for 1996, official statistics need to be reduced by 1365 PJ to account for non-steel production activities and double-counting. Official statistics also need to be increased by 415 PJ in order to include steelmaking energy use of small plants not included in official statistics. This leads to an overall reduction of 950 PJ for steelmaking in China in 1996. Thus, the official final energy use value of 4018 PJ drops to 3067 PJ. In primary energy terms, the official primary energy use value of 4555 PJ is reduced to 3582 PJ when these adjustments are made. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sustainable energy development is a complex multi-dimensional concept that can vary in meaning based on the context it is applied in and the perspective of the user. The role of energy in achieving sustainable development was recognized when the concept was first put forward in 1987. However, what that role consisted of was not made clear. Since then, the concept of sustainable energy development has developed to become a prominent policy objective on the international agenda, as evidenced by the introduction of the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 7 on energy. This paper presents an overview of the history of the concept as well as its emerging themes. Through a citation analysis, the most cited open-access publications relevant to the concept were identified. A thematic analysis of these most cited publications led to the identification of four interrelated themes of sustainable energy development; access to affordable modern energy services, sustainable energy supply, sustainable energy consumption, and energy security. The overarching goal of sustainable energy development was defined as furthering sustainability. Equitable access to affordable and reliable modern energy services is integral to sustainable development. A transformation of the current energy system is necessary to reduce its harmful impacts, both on the supply and demand side. This transformation is not possible unless it is economically viable through, for instance, cost-competitive technologies and changes in energy pricing to reflect the external costs of energy. • Sustainable energy development is a young multi-dimensional concept. • Common themes of sustainable energy development are identified. • Access to modern energy services for all is essential to further sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable energy development has become an international policy objective and an integral part of sustainable development. It is necessary to develop a robust and comprehensive set of indicators to monitor progress towards sustainable energy development. This analysis aimed to assess established indicator sets for sustainable energy development. The characteristics of a comprehensive and robust indicator set were identified to enable such an assessment and used as a basis for six assessment criteria; transparency of indicator selection and indicator application, conceptual framework, representative, linkages, and stakeholder engagement. A total of 57 indicator sets were found that monitor progress towards sustainable energy development or some aspects of it. All but one of these indicator sets were found to be lacking in some aspect, especially regarding a lack of transparency and consideration of linkages between indicators, presentation of an imbalanced picture, and no involvement of stakeholders during indicator development. The only indicator set that met all criteria were Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development developed jointly by multiple international agencies. Nonetheless, several flaws in this set were identified. The Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development could be considered as an initial basket of indicators for further refinement in the context where they will be applied to ensure their policy relevance and usefulness. The refinement process would benefit from more stakeholder input to take into account the specific context and make sure that there is a balance in the representation of the three dimensions of sustainable development. • Sustainable energy development is a policy objective that needs robust indicators. • The characteristics of robust and comprehensive indicator sets were identified. • Most current indicators for sustainable energy development are found lacking. • Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development are a good first building block. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy-intensive processing industries (EPIs) produce iron and steel, aluminum, chemicals, cement, glass, and paper and pulp and are responsible for a large share of global greenhouse gas emissions. To meet 2050 emission targets, an accelerated transition towards deep decarbonization is required in these industries. Insights from sociotechnical and innovation systems perspectives are needed to better understand how to steer and facilitate this transition process. The transitions literature has so far, however, not featured EPIs. This paper positions EPIs within the transitions literature by characterizing their sociotechnical and innovation systems in terms of industry structure, innovation strategies, networks, markets and governmental interventions. We subsequently explore how these characteristics may influence the transition to deep decarbonization and identify gaps in the literature from which we formulate an agenda for further transitions research on EPIs and consider policy implications. Furthering this research field would not only enrich discussions on policy for achieving deep decarbonization, but would also develop transitions theory since the distinctive EPI characteristics are likely to yield new patterns in transition dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The industry sector is a major energy consumer and GHG emitter. Effective climate change mitigation strategies will require a significant reduction of industrial emissions. To better understand the variations in the projected industrial pathways for both baseline and mitigation scenarios, we compare key input and structure assumptions used in energy-models in relation to the modeled sectors' mitigation potential. It is shown that although all models show in the short term similar trends in a baseline scenario, where industrial energy demand increases steadily, after 2050 energy demand spans a wide range across the models (between 203 and 451 EJ/yr). In Non-OECD countries, the sectors energy intensity is projected to decline relatively rapidly but in the 2010–2050 period this is offset by economic growth. The ability to switch to alternative fuels to mitigate GHG emissions differs across models with technologically detailed models being less flexible in switching from fossil fuels to electricity. This highlights the importance of understanding economy-wide mitigation responses and costs and is therefore an area for improvements. By looking at the cement sector in more detail, we show that analyzing each industrial sub-sector separately can improve the interpretation and accuracy of outcomes, and provide insights in the feasibility of GHG abatement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to incorporate sustainability assessment into the material selection processes during early-stage product (re)design, when time and data availability for such assessments are usually limited. A material selection framework is presented and illustrated step-by-step with a case study aiming to identify biobased alternatives for petrochemical plastics used for (flame retardant) panels. After an initial screening step, the technical performance of selected materials is measured. A cradle-to-grave screening life cycle assessment compares the environmental performance of the candidate and reference materials on greenhouse gas emissions, non-renewable energy use and agricultural land use per kilogram. A simplified cost analysis is performed. The environmental and economic indicators are corrected for each candidate's technical performance by estimating expected weight changes in the final product based on material indices . In this case study, two biobased plastics are found to offer equal or improved environmental/economic performance compared to reference materials. Furthermore, the case study shows that additive production can significantly contribute to the plastics' environmental impacts, e.g. accounting for 5–40% of their cradle-to-grave greenhouse gas emissions. The case study demonstrated that the proposed materials selection framework is a useful tool for early-stage product design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fossil fuel substitution with biomass is one of the measures to reduce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions. This paper estimates the cost-effectiveness of raising industrial steam and producing materials (i.e. chemicals, polymers) from biomass. We quantify their long-term global potentials in terms of energy saving, CO 2 emission reduction, cost and resource availability. Technically, biomass can replace all fossil fuels used for the production of materials and for generating low and medium temperature steam. Cost-effective opportunities exist for steam production from biomass residues and by substitution of high value petrochemicals which would together require more than 20 exajoules (EJ) of biomass worldwide in addition to baseline by 2030. Potentials could double in 2050 and reach 38–45 EJ (25% of the total industrial energy use), with most demand in Asia, other developing countries and economies in transition. The economic potential of using biomass as chemical feedstock is nearly as high as for steam production, indicating its importance. The exploitation of these potentials depends on energy prices and industry’s access to biomass supply. Given the increasing competition for biomass from several economic sectors, more resource efficient materials need to be developed while steam production is already attractive due to its high effectiveness for reducing CO 2 emissions per unit of biomass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analyzes the trends in energy use and carbon dioxide emission for the iron and steel industry in Mexico. Decomposition analysis; Steel production growth; Energy efficiency changes.

Nonenergy use is the consumption of fossil fuels as feedstocks for the manufacture of synthetic materials, e.g. plastics. Nonenergy partly leads to short-term carbon dioxide emissions and partly, it is stored in products for longer periods of time. The IPCC guidelines (Reference Approach) offer a top-down method to estimate the amount of stored carbon. An alternative method is material flow analysis, a bottom-up calculation method. A prerequisite for the application of both methods is that nonenergy use data published in national energy balancescomply with a common definition. We found that this is not always the case and that the resulting errors can be considerable, i.e. approx. 10% for Germany and 30% for Italy. Therefore, we performed a harmonization step for nonenergy data. We then applied the IPCC method and material flow analysis to Germany. One result is that the material-flow analysis confirms the outcome according to the IPCC Reference Approach. Another result is that total carbon losses equal about 10% of nonenergy use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]