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Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an important endemic disease of small ruminants in Ethiopia. While vaccination is widely used in the country to control the disease, quantitative estimates of the actual economic losses due to outbreaks and costs of vaccination are scarce. This study assessed the economic impact and costs of PPR vaccination in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia. The economic impact of the disease was estimated from an outbreak investigation including interviews with 233 smallholder farmers in PPR-affected kebeles (subdistricts). The cost of PPR vaccination was obtained from vaccination programs in six kebeles of the district and from secondary data in the district veterinary office. In the investigated PPR outbreak, animal-level PPR morbidity and mortality rates were 51% and 22%, respectively, in sheep and 51% and 25%, respectively, in goats. The flock level morbidity rate was 83% for sheep flocks and 87% for goat flocks. The mean flock level loss was Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 7835 (USD 329 in 2018 average exchange rate) (95% CI: 5954-9718) for affected sheep flocks and ETB 7136 (USD 300) (95% CI: 5869-8404) for affected goat flocks. The losses in all study flocks during the outbreak were ETB 319 (USD 13.4) per sheep and ETB 306 (USD 12.9) per goat. Mortality accounted for more than 70% of the total losses in both sheep and goat flocks. Vaccination costs for PPR were estimated at ETB 3 per correctly vaccinated animal. Based on the estimated animal-level direct economic losses and vaccination cost, it can be conjectured that vaccination will pay if a district PPR outbreak occurs more than once every 13 years. This does not account for additional benefits from vaccine-derived herd immunity reducing disease burden in the wider population. In conclusion, PPR caused high morbidity and mortality in the affected flocks and resulted in high economic losses, equivalent to 14% of annual household income, dramatically affecting the livelihoods of affected flock owners. The vaccination practised in the district is likely to have a positive economic return, with strengthened vaccination programmes bringing reduced economic impact and improved livelihoods.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious and highly contagious respiratory disease of cattle and water buffalo, which is caused by the Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides small colony. It induces significant economic losses and leads to a serious food security problem, negatively influencing peoples' livelihoods in affected countries. The disease has been reported in different parts of Ethiopia with prevalence ranging from 1.78 to 96%. However, there is not enough epidemiological information about CBPP in the northwestern part of the country, particularly in North Gondar Administrative Zone. This cross-sectional study, therefore, was conducted in four selected districts (Metema, Alefa, Quara, and Dembia) of North Gondar Administrative Zone to detect the incursion and estimate the seroprevalence of CBPP and to identify the potential predisposing factors associated with the spread and occurrence of CBPP in the area. A total of 751 serum samples were collected from 41 herds (villages) having no history of CBPP vaccination. Information like age, sex, breed, herd size, and management were collected during blood sample collection. Data related to agro-climatic zone, trade trekking route from or through CBPP endemic/epidemic zone, transhumance grazing route, vehicle route, and bordering with CBPP epidemic/endemic zone were obtained from district agricultural offices. The serum was screened for CBPP using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) test. The animal level and herd level apparent seroprevalences were 12.92% (95% CI: 10.70–15.52) and 65.85% (95% CI: 49.57–79.10), respectively. The true animal level and herd level prevalences were estimated at 20.13% (95% CI: 16.64–24.21) and 65.22% (95% CI: 48.64–78.72%), respectively. At the animal level, trekking route from or through CBPP endemic/epidemic zone to the study area [OR = 4.77 (95% CI: 1.92–11.84) compared to without trekking route] was identified as the most important risk factor for CBPP spread and seropositivity. In general, epidemiological evidence of the present study indicates that CBPP is a prevalent disease, and animal trekking is an important risk factor for spread of the disease in the study area. This needs due attention from the government and other concerned bodies for its prevention and control to mitigate its economic impact.

Although foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Ethiopia, use of vaccines to control the disease has been practiced sparingly. This is due to perceived high cost of good quality FMD vaccine, and consequently limited availability of the vaccine in the market. This study was conducted to assess farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for a quality FMD vaccine and identify factors that could potentially influence their WTP in Amhara region of Ethiopia. A total of 398 farmers from four districts that represent the mixed crop-livestock and market oriented production systems were enrolled for the study. The WTP was estimated using contingent valuation method with a double-bound dichotomous choice bid design. Interval regression analysis was used to estimate mean WTP and identify factors that influence it. The results showed that the mean WTP of all farmers was Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 58.23 (95% CI: 56.20-60.26)/annual dose. It was ETB 75.23 (95% CI: 72. 97-74.49) for market oriented farmers and ETB 42.6 (95%CI: 41.24-43.96) for mixed crop livestock farmers. Willingness to pay for the vaccine was significantly higher for farmers in market oriented system than in mixed crop livestock system. It was also significantly higher for farmers whose main livelihood is livestock than those whose main livelihood is other than livestock, and for farmers who keep exotic breed cattle and their crosses than those who keep only local cattle breeds. Willingness to pay significantly increased with increase in FMD impact perception and vaccine knowledge scores of farmers. The high mean WTP estimates showed that farmers are enthusiastic about using the FMD vaccine. Market-oriented farmers with higher willingness to pay may be more likely to pay full cost if official FMD vaccination is planned in the country than mixed crop livestock farmers. Animal health extension about livestock diseases impact and vaccines has a potential to increase farmers' uptake of vaccines for disease control.

Background Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an economically important trans-boundary viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. It is caused by FMD virus, which belongs to the genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae. FMD is a well-established endemic disease in Ethiopia since it was first detected in 1957. This retrospective study was carried out to identify the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD outbreaks in Amhara region of Ethiopia using 18 years (January 1999–December 2016) reported outbreak data. Results A total of 636 FMD outbreaks were reported in Amhara region of Ethiopia between 1999 and 2016 with an average and median of 35 and 13 outbreaks per year respectively. In this period, FMD was reported at least once in 58.5% of the districts (n = 79) and in all administrative zones of the region (n = 10). The average district level incidence of FMD outbreaks was 4.68 per 18 years (0.26 per district year). It recurs in a district as epidemic, on average in 5.86 years period. The incidence differed between administrative zones, being the lowest in East Gojjam and highest in North Shewa. The occurrence of FMD outbreaks was found to be seasonal with peak outbreaks in March and a low in August. The long-term trend of FMD outbreaks indicates a slight, but statistically significant (p Conclusion FMD occurred in all zones of the region and showed statistically significant decrease in the long-term trend. Numbers of outbreaks were relatively higher during dry season. The spatial and temporal distribution identified in this study should be considered in controlling the disease. As unregulated and frequent animal movements are the likely causes of high outbreak occurrence during the dry season, animal movement regulations should be considered for the long-term control of FMD.

In 2015, the OIE and FAO launched a global eradication programme for Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR). Vaccination is a major component of this strategy yet the costs of implementing a campaign are unknown or based on assumptions without field-based verification necessary for effective economic planning. This study used experiences of attending four PPR vaccination campaigns in Ethiopia to estimate various cost components in pastoral and mixed-crop livestock systems. These components included: cost of vaccine; vaccine transport from the producer to the local storage facility; storage of vaccine at the local facility; delivery and administration of vaccine in the field; opportunity cost of farmer’s time to attend the vaccination; co-ordination of vaccination campaign; publicity and mobilisation costs; vaccine wastage from missed shots and vaccine discard. The overall cost of vaccination was approximately 6 Ethiopian birr (ETB) or US$0.2 per animal in the mixed-crop livestock system compared to approximately 3ETB or US$0.1 in pastoral areas. The relative importance of cost components varied in the two systems with farmer time being the largest contributor in the mixed-crop livestock system while field delivery was the main cost in pastoral areas. Notable vaccine wastage was observed particularly through missed shots that were typically between 0 and 10% but as high as 33%. At the national level, the output of the stochastic model showed the cost of vaccination to be highly variable particularly in the mixed-crop livestock system. These results highlight the importance of doing economic assessments of vaccination campaigns and issues that may be compromising efficiency of delivery and vaccine coverage. It is recommended that the framework be used for further economic evaluations of vaccination for PPR and other livestock diseases particularly when limited public or donor funds are being used, and that the approach be expanded to other countries and regions.

Vaccination is the main tool for control of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) because of the availability of effective and safe vaccines that provide long lasting protection. However vaccination campaigns may not always provide sufficient herd immunity needed to prevent disease outbreaks because of logistic problems with vaccination such as inappropriate cold chain and vaccine delivery methods, and the rapid population turnover of small ruminants. This study was carried out to assess post-vaccination herd immunity against PPR and inter-vaccination population turnover in small ruminant flocks in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia where frequent PPR outbreaks occur despite regular vaccination. A total of 412 serum samples were collected from selected small ruminants in 72 flocks (average flock size of 33.4 and standard deviation of 30) above three months of age in three kebeles immediately before a vaccination program. One month after the vaccination using freeze dried live attenuated vaccine, 359 serum samples were collected from randomly selected small ruminants in the same flocks. The collected serum samples were analyzed to determine the seropositivity using a monoclonal antibody-based C-ELISA. The pre-vaccination seropositivity of 72.3% (95% CI: 67.8–76.4) increased to 93.9% (95% CI: 90.9–95.9) post-vaccination (P

Foot and mouth disease (FMD), a highly contagious and economically important disease of cloven‐hoofed animals, is endemic in Ethiopia. Foot and mouth disease outbreak investigation and follow‐up studies were undertaken to identify the causative serotype, determine the morbidity and mortality, and estimate the economic impact of the outbreaks in selected districts of Northwest Ethiopia. The serotype of FMD virus involved in the outbreaks was identified by antigen detection ELISA from clinical samples. Morbidity, mortality and economic impact of the outbreaks were assessed based on data collected from 738 smallholder farmers in a mixed crop‐livestock (MCL) production system and from five dairy farms in the commercial dairy production system. The outbreaks were confirmed to be due to FMD virus serotype O. The animal level morbidity in clinically affected cattle herds was 68.1% for MCL production system and 54.5% for commercial dairy farms. The mortality in cattle in the MCL system was 0.4% and no mortality was recorded in the commercial dairy farms. The animal level morbidity in sheep and goats in the infected flocks was 35.7% but no mortality was seen in these species. The herd/flock level morbidity of FMD in outbreak affected kebeles of MCL system was 57.2% for cattle and 8% for sheep and goats. The economic losses due to milk loss, draught power loss, mortality and treatment cost were on average USD 34 (interquartile range: 9.4–44.4) per affected herd in the MCL system and this was statistically significantly lower than the USD 459.1 (interquartile range: 400.0–486.2) per affected farm in the commercial dairy farms (p, This study followed up selected outbreaks of FMD that occurred in northwest Ethiopia. Based on the detail follow‐up of the cases, the serotype of the causal virus was identified, the morbidity and mortality of FMD in different species of ruminants and different types of production system were determined, and the economic losses to farmers due to the outbreaks were estimated.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically important disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which is endemic in Ethiopia. An outbreak follow-up study was undertaken to quantify the transmission parameters of FMD in the crop–livestock mixed (CLM) system and commercial dairy farms in selected areas of northwest Ethiopia. The transmission parameters were quantified using a generalised linear model (GLM) based on a susceptible–infectious–recovered (SIR) epidemic model. The per day average transmission rate between animals was 0.26 (95% CI 0.22–0.32) and 0.33 (95% CI 0.21–0.57) in the CLM system and in the commercial dairy farms, respectively. The average basic reproduction ratio of FMD was 1.68 (95% CI 1.42–2.07) in the CLM system and 1.98 (95% CI 1.26–3.42) in the commercial dairy farms. The medium per day transmission rate and moderate basic reproduction ratio observed in this study indicated that a vaccination coverage needed to stop transmission of the disease in these populations might not be very high.

This study involved cross-sectional serological and questionnaire-based surveys to investigate the sero-epidemiology of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in domestic ruminants, and farmers' knowledge and practices about the disease in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. A multistage cluster sampling was carried out to select domestic ruminants for serological sampling and for the interview with farmers. A total of 1,672 sera samples were collected and tested using a 3ABC-Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay, and 170 farmers were interviewed. An overall FMD apparent seroprevalence of 11.48% (95% CI: 7.52–17.14%) was recorded in the domestic ruminants. The overall true prevalence was 12.04%. The seroprevalence of FMD was higher in cattle (14.37%) than in goats (7.10%) and sheep (7.07%). The age stratified seroprevalence in the districts showed that 66.67% of the districts studied experienced a FMD outbreak within the preceding year of the study time. A mixed effect logistic regression analysis revealed that agroecology, the production system and the age of the animal was significantly associated with FMD seropositivity in cattle (P < 0.05). A statistically significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation (r = 0.93) was observed between cattle and small ruminant FMD seroprevalences. About 82% of the farmers interviewed knew of FMD and 85% of them had experienced the disease in their own herds before. The farmers mostly employ traditional means to control FMD. In conclusion, the findings of the study indicated that FMD is a prevalent disease in the Amhara region with more importance in the intensive production systems and the lowlands of the region. High correlation in seroprevalence between small and large ruminants indicated a possible cross transmission between these species. Therefore, small ruminants should not be overlooked in FMD control. Farmers in the region have a good level of knowledge about the disease; however, currently they heavily rely on traditional practices primarily focused on treating wounds of infected animals. This calls for extension work on available effective preventive measures of the disease, such as vaccination and movement restriction.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) occurs endemically in Ethiopia. Quantitative insights on its national economic impact and on the costs and benefits of control options are, however, lacking to support decision making in its control. The objectives of this study were, therefore, to estimate the annual costs of FMD in cattle production systems of Ethiopia, and to conduct an ex ante cost-benefit analysis of potential control alternatives. The annual costs of FMD were assessed based on production losses, export losses and control costs. The total annual costs of FMD under the current status quo of no official control program were estimated at 1354 (90% CR: 864-2042) million birr. The major cost (94%) was due to production losses. The costs and benefits of three potential control strategies: 1) ring vaccination (reactive vaccination around outbreak area supported by animal movement restrictions, 2) targeted vaccination (annual preventive vaccination in high risk areas plus ring vaccination in the rest of the country), and 3) preventive mass vaccination (annual preventive vaccination of the whole national cattle population) were compared with the baseline scenario of no official control program. Experts were elicited to estimate the influence of each of the control strategies on outbreak incidence and number of cases per outbreak. Based on these estimates, the incidence of the disease was simulated stochastically for 10 years. Preventive mass vaccination was epidemiologically the most efficient control strategy by reducing the national outbreak incidence below 5% with a median time interval of 3 years, followed by targeted vaccination strategy with a corresponding median time interval of 5 years. On average, all evaluated control strategies resulted in positive net present values. The ranges in the net present values were, however, very wide, including negative values. The targeted vaccination strategy was the most economic strategy with a median benefit cost ratio of 4.29 (90%CR: 0.29-9.63). It was also the least risky strategy with 11% chance of a benefit cost ratio of less than one. The study indicates that FMD has a high economic impact in Ethiopia. Its control is predicted to be economically profitable even without a full consideration of gains from export. The targeted vaccination strategy is shown to provide the largest economic return with a relatively low risk of loss. More studies to generate data, especially on production impact of the disease and effectiveness of control measures are needed to improve the rigor of future analysis.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which is endemic in many developing countries. Vaccination is the main tool for FMD control in resource limited endemic countries like Ethiopia. Vaccine quality, which is often questionable in developing countries, is a critical element for effective disease control. The present study was aimed at evaluating the field effectiveness of a trivalent FMD vaccine (containing serotypes O, A and SAT 2), produced and widely used in Ethiopia, in terms of preventing clinical infection and severe disease. A randomized controlled field trial design was employed in the study in which the attack rate of clinical FMD infection in vaccinated cattle was compared with the attack rate in unvaccinated controls in cattle population of 16 villages in Gondar Zuria district, Northwest Ethiopia. The vaccine was administered as a single dose course in the face of an impending FMD outbreak and the trial groups were monitored for clinical infection until the end of the outbreak. The attack rate of clinical FMD 20 days post vaccination in the vaccinated cattle (34 %) was significantly lower than the attack rate in the unvaccinated controls (49 %) (p 0.001). However, the effectiveness of the vaccine was only 31 % (95 %CI: 20-40 %). This vaccine effectiveness increased to 52 % ((95 %CI: 33-66 %) 42 days post vaccination. The proportion of severely affected cattle in the vaccinated group (5.7 %) was significantly lower than in the unvaccinated group (9.4 %) (p 0.001), resulting in 39 % (95 %CI: 18-55 %) vaccine effectiveness against severe disease. Generally, the observed level of vaccine effectiveness was lower than the internationally recommended 75 % plus expected percentage of protection for a standard potency 3PD

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is contagious, acute viral disease of all cloven-hoofed animals. The disease is endemic in Ethiopia and causes multiple outbreak every year all over the country. While it is important to understand to the transmission dynamics of FMD outbreaks for appropriate control intervention, no such study has been done in Ethiopia. Thus, the aims of this study were to estimate the basic reproduction number (R0) of FMD and simulate FMD transmission dynamics of FMD in Amhara region of Ethiopia. Basic reproduction number (R0) was estimated from age stratified sero-prevalence data through maximum likelihood estimation. A stochastic SIR (susceptible-infectious-recovered) compartmental FMD model was formulated and parameterized using literature and age stratified sero-prevalence field data. The R0 of FMD in the region was estimated to be 1.27 (95%CI: 1.20-1.34). The simulation of the SIR model showed only 24% (95% CI: 16-32%) of the infection introduced in the region caused major outbreaks. Out of the major outbreaks 25% of them tend to persist in the region. Major outbreaks cause 38.9% (95% CI: 38.8-39.1%) morbidity and 0.0019% (95% CI: 0.0018-0.0020%) mortality in cattle and the outbreaks stayed for an average of 690 days (95%CI: 655-727). Validation of the model prediction with farmer's field experience indicated a fairly similar result especially for the predicted morbidity caused by outbreaks. This study revealed low transmission of FMD within the Amhara region cattle population indicating not very high vaccination coverage is needed, if control through vaccination is envisaged at regional level. However, owing to several simplified assumptions made during the modeling, this conclusion should be taken cautiously.

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About half of small ruminant mortality and morbidity in Ethiopian highlands is caused by endoparasites including lungworms. The updated epidemiology of these parasites in different parts of the country is important to adopt local control measures. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of small ruminant lungworms, identify associated risk factors and the species of lungworms involved in small ruminants infection in Burie district, in the northwest Ethiopia. The study involved a cross-sectional coproscopic examination of 384 small ruminants randomly selected from the district from December 2016 to March 2017. An overall prevalence of 23.4% lungworms in small ruminants was recorded. The prevalence was significantly higher in goats (36.3%) than in sheep (15.5 %) (OR=3.1, 95% CI=1.95.0; p

Foot and mouth disease is endemic in Ethiopia with occurrences of several outbreaks every year. Quantitative information about the impact of the disease on smallholder farming systems in the country is, however, scarce. This study presents a quantitative assessment of the clinical and direct economic impacts of foot and mouth disease outbreaks on household level in smallholder livestock farming systems. Impacts were assessed based on data obtained from case outbreaks in cattle in crop-livestock mixed and pastoral smallholder farming systems that occurred in 2012 and 2013. Data were collected by using questionnaires administered to 512 smallholder farmers in six districts within two administrate zones that represent the two smallholder farming systems. Foot and mouth disease morbidity rates of 85.2% and 94.9% at herd level; and 74.3% and 60.8% at animal level in the affected herds were determined for crop-livestock mixed system and pastoral system, respectively. The overall and calf specific mortality rates were 2.4% and 9.7% for the crop-livestock mixed system, and 0.7% and 2.6% for the pastoral system, respectively. Herd level morbidity rate was statistically significantly higher in the pastoral system than in the crop-livestock mixed system (P

Background Rabies is a zoonotic disease that has been prevalent in humans and animals for centuries in Ethiopia and it is often dealt with using traditional practices. There is lack of accurate quantitative information on rabies both in humans and animals in Ethiopia and little is known about the awareness of the people about the disease. In this study, we estimated the incidence of rabies in humans and domestic animals, and assessed the people's awareness about the disease in North Gondar zone, Ethiopia. Methodology/Principal Findings The incidence of rabies in humans and domestic animals was prospectively followed up for one year period based on clinical observation. A questionnaire was also administered to 120 randomly selected dog owners and 5 traditional healers to assess the knowledge and practices about the disease. We found an annual estimated rabies incidence of 2.33 cases per 100,000 in humans, 412.83 cases per 100,000 in dogs, 19.89 cases per 100,000 in cattle, 67.68 cases per 100,000 in equines, and 14.45 cases per 100,000 in goats. Dog bite was the source of infection for all fatal rabies cases. Ninety eight percent of the questionnaire respondents were familiar with rabies and mentioned dog bite as a means of transmission. But discordant with current scientific knowledge, 84% and 32% of the respondents respectively mentioned any type of contact (irrespective of skin condition) with saliva, and inhalation as a means of transmission of rabies. Eighty four percent of the respondents relied on traditional healers for management of rabies. Conclusions The study shows high canine rabies burden, and lack of sufficient awareness about the disease and high reliance on traditional treatment that interfere with timely post exposure management. Vaccination of dogs, proper post exposure management, and increasing the awareness of the community are suggested to reduce the disease burden., Author Summary Rabies is a fatal viral disease that affects all mammals including humans. Domestic dog is the main source of rabies for humans and livestock in developing countries. Rabies has been prevalent in Ethiopia for centuries, affecting humans and livestock. In this study we estimated the incidence of the disease in North Gondar zone, Ethiopia and assessed the people's awareness about the disease. We found a high annual rabies incidence of 2.33 cases per 100,000 in humans, 412.83 cases per 100,000 in dogs, 19.89 cases per 100,000 in cattle, 67.68 cases per 100,000 in equines, and 14.45 cases per 100,000 in goats. Although almost all interviewed people were familiar with the disease, quite a lot of them (84%) have some opinions that are incongruent with existing scientific knowledge about the cause and means of transmission of the disease. We also found high reliance on traditional healers, whose practice has not been proven effective scientifically, for the management of the disease. In conclusion, the disease poses significant public health and economic problem that warrants multi-dimensional approach towards its control. Vaccination of dogs, proper post exposure management, and increasing the awareness of the community about the disease should be considered for controlling the disease.