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Cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy (CALD) is an X-linked rapidly progressive demyelinating disease leading to death usually within a few years. The standard of care is haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), but many men are not eligible due to age, absence of a matched donor or lesions of the corticospinal tracts (CST). Based on the ADVANCE study showing that leriglitazone decreases the occurrence of CALD, we treated 13 adult CALD patients (19-67 years of age) either not eligible for HSCT (n = 8) or awaiting HSCT (n = 5). Patients were monitored every 3 months with standardized neurological scores, plasma biomarkers and brain MRI comprising lesion volumetrics and diffusion tensor imaging. The disease stabilized clinically and radiologically in 10 patients with up to 2 years of follow-up. Five patients presented with gadolinium enhancing CST lesions that all turned gadolinium negative and, remarkably, regressed in four patients. Plasma neurofilament light chain levels stabilized in all 10 patients and correlated with lesion load. The two patients who continued to deteriorate were over 60 years of age with prominent cognitive impairment. One patient died rapidly from coronavirus disease 2019. These results suggest that leriglitazone can arrest disease progression in adults with early-stage CALD and may be an alternative treatment to HSCT., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Purpose: ATP2B2 encodes the variant-constrained plasma-membrane calcium-transporting ATPase-2, expressed in sensory ear cells and specialized neurons. ATP2B2/Atp2b2 variants were previously linked to isolated hearing loss in patients and neurodevelopmental deficits with ataxia in mice. We aimed to establish the association between ATP2B2 and human neurological disorders., Methods: Multinational case recruitment, scrutiny of trio-based genomics data, in silico analyses, and functional variant characterization were performed., Results: We assembled 7 individuals harboring rare, predicted deleterious heterozygous ATP2B2 variants. The alleles comprised 5 missense substitutions that affected evolutionarily conserved sites and 2 frameshift variants in the penultimate exon. For 6 variants, a de novo status was confirmed. Unlike described patients with hearing loss, the individuals displayed a spectrum of neurological abnormalities, ranging from ataxia with dystonic features to complex neurodevelopmental manifestations with intellectual disability, autism, and seizures. Two cases with recurrent amino-acid variation showed distinctive overlap with cerebellar atrophy-associated ataxia and epilepsy. In cell-based studies, all variants caused significant alterations in cytosolic calcium handling with both loss- and gain-of-function effects., Conclusion: Presentations in our series recapitulate key phenotypic aspects of Atp2b2-mouse models and underline the importance of precise calcium regulation for neurodevelopment and cerebellar function. Our study documents a role for ATP2B2 variants in causing heterogeneous neurodevelopmental and movement-disorder syndromes., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Acquired demyelinating syndromes (ADS) are frequently associated with myelin oligodendrocytes glycoprotein (MOG) antibodies in children. Clinical phenotypes are heterogeneous and may delay the diagnosis, especially when they relapse and are atypical, mimicking diseases such as multiple sclerosis or neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders . Here, we describe two children: one with a progressive cognitive and behavioral deterioration with seizures after only one relapse and the other with similar clinical impairments associated with multiple relapses. Brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed a subsequent progressive leukodystrophy-like lesion with diffuse bilateral white matter injuries in both patients. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis showed pleiocytosis, increased level of proteins with no oligoclonal bands. Metabolic and inflammatory blood markers were all negative. Brain biopsy was performed in the second child and nonspecific inflammatory lesions with no argument for histiocytosis or tumor were observed. Clinical and radiological stabilization were obtained after active immunotherapy. Retrospective analysis of anti-MOG antibodies in these two children was positive at the earlier stage of the disease and turned negative after treatment and during follow-up. Leukodystrophy-like ADS with anti-MOG-antibodies may display distinct progressive phenotype and have a severe neurological prognosis. Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment may improve outcome in these children., Competing Interests: EY, HM, CL, PH, SN, ML, CA, BH, CS have nothing to disclose; KD received speaking honoraria at meetings and for participation in advisory boards from Novartis, Sanofi, Servier., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Progressive myelopathy causes severe handicap in men with adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN), an X-linked disorder due to ABCD1 pathogenic variants. At present, treatments are symptomatic but disease-modifying therapies are under evaluation. Given the small effect size of clinical scales in AMN, biomarkers with higher effect size are needed. Here we used high-resolution magnetic resonance techniques to identify non-invasive in vivo biomarkers of the brain and spine with high effect sizes., Methods: We performed a multiparametric imaging and spectroscopy study in 23 male patients with AMN (age: 44 ± 11) and 23 male controls (age: 43 ± 11) of similar age and body-mass index. We combined (i) macrostructural analyses of the spine, using cross-sectional area (CSA) and magnetization transfer ratio (MTR), (ii) microstructural analyses of the spine and the brain, using diffusion tensor and the newly developed fixel-based analysis, and (iii) advanced metabolic analyses of the spine using metabolite cycling coupled to a semi-LASER sequences., Results: Macrostructural alterations (decrease in CSA and MTR) were observed in patients at all spinal cord levels studied (C1-T2 for CSA and C1-C5 for MTR) (p < 0.001). Microstructural alterations were observed in the spine and brain on diffusion tensor and fixel-based metrics though the latter showed higher effect sizes. Metabolic alterations were observed in patients as a decreased total N-acetylaspartate/myo-inositol ratio (p < 0.001). Overall, MTR showed the highest effect size., Conclusion: This cross-sectional study supports the use of multiparametric techniques that elucidate the structural, microstructural and metabolic alterations in AMN. These outcome measures should be tested longitudinally and in clinical trials., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Aim: To describe cognitive abilities through the evaluation of academic difficulties in children with acute demyelinating syndromes (ADS) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibodies., Method: This was an observational, retrospective study of a French paediatric cohort that included children aged 18 years and younger. Clinical, biological, and imaging data were collected and academic outcome was measured., Results: Seventy-six children were included in the study with a mean (SD) follow-up of 4 years 7 months (6y 4mo). Median age at disease onset was 9 years 1 months (interquartile range=4y 7mo-13y 11mo; 36 females, 40 males). Thirty-six children relapsed and 20 had academic difficulties at the last follow-up. Academic difficulties, as well as deep grey matter and putaminal lesions (p=0.047 and p=0.006 respectively), were significantly more prevalent in children aged 10 years and younger (p=0.02). Using univariate binary regression analysis, we found that age at disease onset of 10 years and younger (odds ratio [OR] 3.72 [95% confidence interval {CI} 1.19-11.64]; p=0.024), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis at disease onset (OR 52.5 [95% CI 5.97-461.4]; p<0.001), and deep grey matter lesions (OR 17.33 [95% CI 3.87-77.72]; p<0.001) were associated with academic difficulties., Interpretation: MOG antibody-associated ADS have distinct clinical and radiological patterns that are age-dependent. Indirect cognitive evaluation through academic difficulties was prevalent in younger children and is associated with specific clinical and magnetic resonance imaging factors that need to be considered earlier on when assessing this patient population., (© 2020 Mac Keith Press.)

Objective: To describe the clinical phenotypes, treatment response, and outcome of children with antibodies against aquaporin-4 (AQP4-Ab) neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD)., Methods: Retrospective, multicenter, and multinational study of patients with AQP4-Ab NMOSD aged <18 years at disease onset from a center in Brazil and 13 European centers. Data on demographics, clinical findings, and laboratory results were analyzed; calculation of annualized relapse rates (ARRs) pre- and on-treatment with disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and of ORs for predictors of poor outcome was performed., Results: A total of 67 children were identified. At last follow-up (median 4 years, interquartile range 2-10 years), 37/67(57.8%) were found to have permanent disability. A more severe disease course was seen in the non-White ethnicity with both a shorter time to first relapse ( p = 0.049) and a worse Expanded Disability Status Scale score at last follow-up ( p = 0.008). The median ARR on treatment was 0.18 on azathioprine (n = 39, range 0-4), 0 on mycophenolate mofetil (n = 18, range 0-3), and 0 on rituximab (n = 29, range 0-2). No patient treated with rituximab as first-line therapy relapsed. Optic neuritis at onset was associated with a poor visual outcome below 20/200 (OR 8.669, 95% CI 1.764-42.616, p = 0.008), and a younger age at onset was associated with cognitive impairment (OR 0.786, 95% CI 0.644-0.959, p = 0.018)., Conclusions: AQP4-Ab NMOSD in children is an aggressive disease with permanent disabilities observed in over half the cohort. All DMTs were associated with a reduction of ARR. First-line rituximab prevented further clinical relapses. International consensus on treatment protocols for children is required to reduce heterogeneity of treatment regimens used worldwide., Classification of Evidence: This study provides Class IV evidence that for children with AQP4-Ab NMOSD, all DMTs, particularly first-line rituximab, reduced the ARR and prevented further clinical relapses., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the American Academy of Neurology.)

Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) astrocytopathy is a rare recently defined antibody-mediated encephalitis. Meningo-encephalomyelitis presentation is frequent with lymphocytic pleiocytosis in the cerebro-spinal fluid and brain MRI classically demonstrates in 50% of cases, a linear perivascular enhancement extending radially from the ventricles. Here, we describe 2 cases of pediatric autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy with limbic encephalitis presentation and peculiar MRI characteristics: one with normal MRI and the second suggestive of Mild Encephalitis/Encephalopathy with reversible splenial lesion syndrome (MERS). These two cases illustrate that anti-GFAP antibodies should be sought in children presenting limbic encephalitis with a normal and/or MERS suggestive MRI, as treatment strategies may differ., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2020 European Paediatric Neurology Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)