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This study examined the response of two students in the Southwestern United States with autism spectrum disorder and IQ in the intellectual disability range to a comprehensive, text-based reading intervention. The intervention, "Friends on the Block," includes multiple strands of literacy providing explicit instruction in phonics, phonemic awareness, high-frequency irregular or temporarily irregular words, decoding, vocabulary, oral language, and comprehension. Multiple supports for students with intensive needs are embedded within the intervention, such as specially designed multi-criteria books, extensive scaffolding, and intensive cumulative review. Teachers customize the program to address the varying needs of students. We used single-case multiple baselines across levels of instruction design to assess growth on a measure of reading (words read correctly). Results indicated a positive, functional relation between reading intervention and word reading. Both students also demonstrated modest growth on measures of phonemic awareness, letter-sound knowledge, and word identification from pre- to post-intervention.

In the United States, 16.6 million adults are unable to comprehend sentences or read common documents, thereby limiting their ability to participate in a literate society. Given the consequences of low literacy, we conducted a single-case study with adult multilingual learners to test the effectiveness of a game app, Codex: The Lost Words of Atlantis, on word decoding. The analyses of the pilot study showed moderate to large effect sizes on phonological decoding of taught and untaught words and large and statistically significant increases from pre-test to post-test on five distal reading measures. These results suggest the app may support adult multilingual learners in learning to decode common English words.

Stopping rules for fixed-form tests with graduated item difficulty are intended to stop administration of a test at the point where students are sufficiently unlikely to provide a correct response following a pattern of incorrect responses. Although widely employed in fixed-form tests in education, little research has been done to empirically evaluate the stopping rules in these tests that often have important instructional and/or placement implications for students. In this manuscript, we propose and research a framework for evaluating stopping rules with respect to two important and sometimes conflicting criteria: (1) efficiency; and (2) reliability. Using this framework, we provide an example in which we apply three increasingly complex methods for evaluating efficiency and two methods for examining reliability.

The importance of helping all children make meaningful progress in reading development is supported by legislative mandates and court rulings. The purpose of this research was to describe findings from a series of single-case design studies completed over three years to test the effects of a specific comprehensive literacy intervention, Friends on the Block, on word recognition. Participants were 18 students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) ranging in age from 6 to 13. Results were analyzed using Tau statistical procedures that indicate consistent moderate-to-strong positive effects across all participants for both sight words and decodable words. Across the 67 sight word studies the mean effect size was 0.73, and across the 8 decodable word studies the mean effect size was 0.74. Further research is needed to examine the impact of the intervention on a broader array of variables. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

We conducted two studies to examine the effects of an interactive read aloud and vocabulary intervention on the vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-speaking preschoolers living in the U.S. In Study 1, 68 children (n = 34 in the treatment group) and 6 parents in the treatment group received the intervention in Spanish at home, and in Spanish and English in the preschool. Results indicated a significant effect of the intervention on children's receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge in Spanish favoring the treatment group. Effect sizes were moderate to large. English outcomes were significant for the treatment group only on the receptive vocabulary measure. Children who participated in the Home plus Preschool intervention (n = 6) made significant gains on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge with large effect sizes. In Study 2 we conducted a single subject design study with four preschool children and their mothers. The intervention was provided at home. Results indicated a change from baseline to maintenance for all four children on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge. Parents in both studies saw important changes in their children's engagement in read alouds as well as in their children's communication skills.

Diagnostic assessments are intended to support teachers' instructional decision making by providing instructionally relevant information. In this article, we propose that using cognitive theories of learning to design diagnostic assessments can provide teachers with two diagnostic outcomes: (a) the location of a student's thinking within the learning process, and (b) identification of misconceptions and errors that may underlie student performance. We focus on two test design considerations that may support these diagnostic inferences, specifically (a) sequencing item content to align with learning progressions and (b) constructing multiple-choice items with diagnostically relevant distractors. We provide an illustrative example from middle-school mathematics.

The purpose of this study was to examine the promise and feasibility of a newly developed curriculum to teach early literacy skills to students with intellectual disability (ID) and students with low IQs. The curriculum texts were written to include familiar settings, high frequency words, natural syntax, and cumulative practice. A single-case design was used with multiple baseline across levels of instruction and included eight participants who had IQs spanning from 40 to 63. The study was conducted across one academic year in two private schools for students with special needs. Results showed that all eight students demonstrated significant growth on proximal measures of taught words, as well as growth on at least some curriculum-based distal measures. Additionally, the program was demonstrated to be feasible; the teachers implemented the intervention with high degrees of fidelity and expressed satisfaction with the effectiveness and practicality of the program.

This study examined the facility-to-community transition of 531 incarcerated youth following their release from Oregon's juvenile correctional system, for a period of 12 months. Data on the sample were gathered through phone interviews, while they were still in custody and then every 6 months after their parole. The interviewees were asked to describe their work, educational, and living and social experiences in the community. For this sample, (a) being engaged in work and/or school within 6 months after parole and (b) receiving services from mental health and other social service agencies within 6 months in the community were associated with being engaged in work and/or school 12 months after exit. Participants with disabilities were less likely to be engaged and were more likely to return to the juvenile correctional system than participants without disabilities.

Immigrant populations are growing and permanently changing the demographic profile of the United States. Diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds are imposing demands and challenges upon agencies serving young children and families. Culturally sensitive assessments are not always available for these populations, and psychometric properties of available instruments have not always been investigated. This study examined one developmental screening instrument translated and adapted for Spanish-speaking families, the "Ages and Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition," and evaluated how scores of children on the 9-, 18-, and 30-month Spanish translation differed from scores of children on the English version of the "Ages and Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition." Item characteristics across the English and Spanish versions of the "Ages and Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition," were investigated. Findings indicated that most of the "Ages and Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition," items functioned invariantly across language versions, indicating that these items were productive for gathering information, presented an adequate hierarchy difficulty for order of items, and were eliciting a range of response options included on the tool. Implications for practice and research are discussed, supporting cross-cultural studies on parent-completed questionnaires as necessary for effective screening and monitoring of young children's development in a context of cultural and linguistic diversity.

Although the recent identification of the five critical components of early literacy has been a catalyst for modifications to the content of materials used to provide reading instruction and the tools used to examine student's acquisition of early literacy skills, these skills have not received equal attention from test developers and publishers. In particular, a review of early literacy available measures for screening and monitoring students reveals a dearth of tools for examining different facets of reading comprehension. The purposes of this study were twofold: (a) to examine the relative difficulty of items written to assess literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension, and (b) to compare single factor and bifactor models of reading comprehension to determine if items written to assess students' literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension abilities comprise unique measurement factors. Data from approximately 2,400 fifth grade students collected in the fall, winter, and spring of fifth grader were used to examine these questions. Findings indicated that (a) the relative difficulty of item types may be curvilinear, with literal items being significantly less challenging than inferential and evaluative items, and (b) literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension measurement factors explained unique portions of variance in addition to a general reading comprehension factor. Instructional implications of the findings are discussed.

In this article, we highlight the need for a precisely defined construct in score-based validation and discuss the contribution of cognitive theories to accurately and comprehensively defining the construct. We propose a framework for integrating cognitively based theoretical and empirical evidence to specify and evaluate the construct. We apply this framework to an example case for division of fractions. Methods used to evaluate the example case included task analysis of the mathematical proof for the invert and multiply algorithm, interviews with content and pedagogical experts, verbal protocols, and item analyses based on pilot test data. The proposed framework, however, is intended to be generalized to other constructs. (Contains 7 figures.)

Adapting traditional paper-pencil instruments to computer-based environments has received considerable attention from the research community due to the possible administration mode effects on obtained measures. When differences due to mode of completion (i.e., paper-pencil, computer-based) are present, threats to measurement validity are posed. In this research, administration mode effects of web-based and conventional paper-pencil versions of a parent-completed developmental questionnaire, the "Ages & Stages Questionnaires" ("ASQ"), were estimated. Setting this study apart from similar studies reported in the literature, the "ASQ" requires parents to observe and rate their children's behavior. Most measures adapted for web-based administration are not observational. Using item response model invariance testing procedures, analyses tested whether "ASQ" items administered via the Internet function differently from corresponding traditional paper-pencil items. Analyzing the 4-, 12-, and 24-month "ASQ" intervals, statistically significant differences (i.e., "DIF," or "differential item functioning") were obtained on 10 of the 90 items examined in this study. Although "DIF" was observed for some items, the overall "DIF" model was rejected for all domains. On the basis of these results, the paper-pencil and web-based measures can be considered equivalent and the mode effect is not present; "ASQ" measures obtained from either mode are therefore interchangeable. Noteworthy remedies are considered for web-based administration of the 10 specific items lacking invariance.

Postsecondary education has been linked to improved access to employment opportunities for individuals with and without disabilities. The purpose of this study was to determine factors associated with increased employment outcomes for Vocational Rehabilitation consumers enrolled in community college short term occupational skill training programs. Findings indicate that certain student and program factors were associated with more positive program and employment outcomes. Females, older participants, and those who received financial support were more likely to complete a certificate, be employed at exit, and maintain employment for 90 days. Individuals with psychiatric disabilities and other skill barriers were less likely to obtain positive program outcomes. Being female or a member of an ethnic minority group was associated with lower annual wages, while completion of all program outcomes predicted higher total annual wages. Implications for rehabilitation practice are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

Scholars have argued that imprecise data graphics, specifically those displaying decorative dimensionality of data, may lead to inaccurate interpretations. Empirical tests of decorative dimensionality have produced mixed results. The literature also suggests that the effects of decorative dimensionality may depend on the cognitive demand of a given task. This study employs an experimental design in which participants receive three levels of decorative dimensionality amidst systematically varying levels of cognitive demand. Graph type and subject matter knowledge are controlled for by design. The hypothesis that the impact of decorative dimensionality on comprehension not only depends on the cognitive demand of the task at hand, but also on the user's graphical literacy, is tested. Results indicate that graphical literacy moderates the interaction between cognitive demand and decorative dimensionality. A familiarity effect may also be present during the display of common two-dimensional bars. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

Students with significant disabilities must participate in large-scale assessments, often using an alternate assessment judged against alternate achievement standards. The development and administration of this type of assessment must necessarily balance meaningful participation with accurate measurement. In this study, generalizability theory is used to estimate the dependability of reading items and tasks that have been administered using two formats of communication (receptive and expressive). The results reflect a trade-off between meaningful participation and accurate measurement of students with significant cognitive disabilities, particularly when considering the two formats. Significant variance is obtained for persons interacting with tasks, whereas the effect of raters is negligible. Furthermore, these results appear to vary across administrative format. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

Diagnosis is an integral part of instructional decision-making. As the bridge between identification of students who may be at-risk for failure and delivery of carefully designed supplemental interventions, diagnosis provides valuable information about students' persistent misconceptions in the targeted domain. In this paper, we discuss current approaches to diagnosis in mathematics and highlight the strengths and limitations of each approach for making instructional decisions. We point to cognitive diagnostic assessments as an emerging solution for providing detailed and precise information about students' thinking that is needed to provide appropriate educational opportunities for students struggling in mathematics. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

Patterns and correlates of comorbidity, as well as differences in manifest depressive profiles were investigated in a sample of depressed adolescents. A sub-sample of the youth were characterized as belonging to either a "Pure" depression group, an "Internalizing" group (depression and co-occurring internalizing disorders), or an "Externalizing" group (depression and co-occurring externalizing disorders). Item response theory (IRT) and differential item functioning (DIF) were used to assess whether the depressed adolescents from the different comorbidity groups presented with different depressive symptoms. Results indicated that the comorbidity groups were meaningfully distinct in terms of psychosocial correlates as well as showed differences in depressive symptom profiles as informed by DIF analyses. In particular, the comorbidity groups differed in terms of presentation of psychomotor changes and cognitive impairments. Implications for assessment are discussed.

Background: Accurate and efficient developmental screening measures are critical for early identification of developmental problems; however, few reliable and valid tests are available in Korea as well as other countries outside the USA. The Ages and Stages Questionnaires (ASQ) was chosen for study with young children in Korea. Methods: The ASQ was translated into Korean and necessary cross-cultural adaptations were made. The translated version was then distributed and completed by 3220 parents of young children between the ages of 4 months and 5 years. Reliability was studied including domain correlations, internal consistency, and performance of identification cut-off scores for the Korean population. Rasch analyses including tests of Differential Item Functioning, contrasting Korean and US samples were also performed. Results: In general, internal consistency of the Korean ASQ was high, with overall correlations 0.75 for communication, 0.85 for gross motor, 0.74 for fine motor, 0.72 for problem solving, and 0.65 for personal-social. Validity, including concurrent validity, also had strong evidence. Mean scores of children on the Korean translation of the ASQ and the US normative sample were generally similar. Rasch analyses indicated the majority of items functioned similarly across the Korean sample. Conclusions: In general, the ASQ was translated with cultural appropriateness in mind and functioned as a valid and reliable parent-completed screening test to assist in early identification of young children with developmental delays. Further research is needed to confirm these results with a larger and more diverse Korean sample.

This study examined the accuracy of a curriculum-based assessment for use during the eligibility process for Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) services. The study extended a previous investigation in which performance scores of children without disabilities on the Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System (AEPS) were used to set cutoff scores at 6-month age intervals. These cutoff scores were then tested for service eligibility classification accuracy. The present study specifies and examines cutoff scores at more specific age intervals and performance domains. Present study findings largely replicated results of the original study. The AEPS cutoff scores were found to accurately classify most eligible children but did overidentify some ineligible children. The data from these two studies suggest that, to the extent allowed by state criteria, early intervention/early childhood special education personnel may be able to use the AEPS test as a valid assessment tool while qualifying children for IDEA services. (Contains 7 tables.)

This longitudinal study of the community adjustment of 531 youth exiting Oregon's juvenile justice system focused on youth categorized as being in either low or high socioeconomic status (SES) groups. The team gathered data before participants exited the corrections system and afterwards by telephone interviews. The study found no statistical difference between the 2 groups in terms of rate of return to the correctional system. Engagement in school and/or work at 6 months postexit was statistically related to similar engagement at 12 months, especially for the high SES group. Receiving community services at 6 months postexit was associated with a lower rate of return for youth from the high SES group, but not for youth from the low SES. (Contains 4 tables.)

Alternatives to the standard statewide assessment often are necessary for valid measurement of students with significant disabilities. These alternate assessments must be carefully developed and evaluated with respect to generally accepted psychometric standards. Ideally, these measures should be sensitive to growth and scaled to state tests that are aligned with grade level content standards. In this study, we investigated the technical adequacy of early reading performance tasks for a Grade 3 statewide alternate reading test. Our research hypotheses pertain to (a) equitable measurement function across populations of students, (b) measurement dimensionality, and (c) item difficulty. Using test results obtained from annual testing in one state, our findings suggest that performance tasks are adequate for use in the alternate assessment, and they can be scaled in terms of the statewide testing metric. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Accommodations influence the measurement of student proficiency. However, with discrepant research findings, it is difficult to evaluate the effects of these practices on the measurement of performance of students with special needs. In this article, we present results from an experimental study investigating the effects of item characteristics on lower and higher reader's differential benefit for two reading-based accommodations on a third-grade mathematics test. Students with lower reading skills differentially benefited from the read-aloud accommodation on items with high mathematics difficulty and high linguistic complexity but did not benefit from a simplified-language accommodation. This study illustrates the need to consider the interaction between item features and student characteristics in accommodations research. Implications for accommodations research as well as practice are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

We examined the differences between early and late start juvenile delinquents in a sample of 531 previously incarcerated youth in Oregon's juvenile justice system. Data were analyzed with logistic regression to predict early start delinquency based on four explanatory variables: foster care experience, family criminality, special education disability, and socioeconomic status. Youth with foster care experience were four times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no foster care experience. Youth with a family member convicted of a felony were two times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no family felony. Implications for future research are discussed, as well as implications for practice and policy. We suggest that future studies examine differences between male and female delinquents, the effects of foster care on children, and interfamilial processes that facilitate criminal behavior. Efforts to support children and families at risk of abuse and neglect should be reexamined in light of the results of our study, which adds to the emerging knowledge base regarding the relationships between violence experienced in early childhood, and future criminal behavior.

Two different theoretical approaches were compared to determine the optimal cutoff scores for the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional (ASQ: SE), a social-emotional screening test. Cutoff scores based on statistical decision theory modeling, Receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC), were compared with cutoff scores obtained using Item Response Theory (IRT) measurement theory modeling. The purposes of this comparison were (a) to offer alternative perspectives on the computation and function of cutoff scores, and (b) to obtain appropriate cutoff scores for the ASQ: SE screening test. Results are presented for both analyses, ROC and IRT. Collectively, results from the two approaches offer comparable solutions to persistent problems arising when screening decision rules are needed. Results underscore the psychometric integrity of the ASQ: SE cutoff scores.

In this study, the authors examined the facility-to-community transition experiences--focusing specifically on employment--of 531 incarcerated youth following their release from Oregon's juvenile correctional system. They gathered data on the sample while these youth were still in custody and then every 6 months through phone interviews to describe the participants' community work, educational, and living and social experiences of the study participants. The authors documented the participants' return to the juvenile correctional system and entry into the adult correctional system from extant state databases. In this study, being employed at 6 months postexit was related in a marginally statistically significant manner (p = 0.07) to remaining in the community and out of the correctional system at that same point in time. Generally, young men, participants without special education disabilities, those youth committed to the juvenile correctional system for person-related crimes, and individuals who were not gang members exhibited better employment outcomes. Services provided by mental health agencies and other social service agencies were inversely related to employment rate, but substance abuse treatment and completion of career/vocational classes while in custody were positively related to selected employment outcomes. The results suggest that individualized job placement and support services should be offered to members of this population upon their parole to the community--with special attention paid to distinct subgroups, such as young women, juvenile offenders with special education disabilities, gang members, and those with a history of property crimes.

This research investigates the relative importance of vocabulary and oral reading fluency as measurement dimensions of reading comprehension as the student passes from elementary to high school. Invariance of this model over grades 4 through 8 is tested using two independent student samples reading grade-level appropriate passages. Results from structural equation modeling indicate that the model is not invariant across grade levels. Vocabulary knowledge is a significant and constant predictor of overall reading comprehension irrespective of grade level. While significant, fluency effects diminish over grades, especially in the later grades. Lack of grade level invariance was obtained with both samples. Results are discussed in light of vertically linked reading assessments, adequate yearly progress, and instruction.

We identify explanatory risk variables associated with the co-occurrence of two problem behaviors: juvenile offending and adolescent fatherhood. Data were gathered from a 5-year prospective, longitudinal study of 531 incarcerated juvenile offenders as they transitioned from youth correction facilities back into the community. Of the total sample, 125 (28.3%) of the male participants reported fatherhood before their 20th birthday. Six risk variables were predictive of adolescent fatherhood in this sample: (a) gang member, (b) resided with non-biological parent as primary caretaker, (c) low SES, (d) child of parent with alcoholism, (e) low mother education, and (f) family member convicted of a felony. These variables were then placed in individual, family, and social domains. Cumulative probabilities identified family related variables as the primary domain contributing to the predictive multivariate model. These results provide support for the development of prevention and interventions strategies focused across multiple ecological contexts, focusing specifically on the family unit.

Data from 13 supported employment programs and 680 employees with developmental disabilities show little or no increase in wages or hours outcomes for people in jobs acquired in the late 1990s compared to the early 1990s. There are, however, improvements in the typical features of job acquisition, roles, and orientation. (Contains references.) (CR)

Data from the study, Transition Research on Adjudicated Youth in Community Settings, were used to examine community integration outcomes for the subgroup of adolescent fathers. Juvenile offenders who were fathers were found to return to the correctional system at a higher rate than nonfathers, but fathers who remained in the community were characterized by employment and use of community resources. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

This study examined the usefulness of the Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System, a curriculum-based measure to corroborate the findings of standardized, norm-referenced tests that establish eligibility for special education services for young children under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Results indicated that, in most cases, cutoff scores identified eligible children accurately. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

A 5-year study investigated the relationship of selected variables to engagement (working, attending school, or both) status of 108 formerly incarcerated youth. Participants whose first formal adjudication occurred after 14 and were not gang-involved were more likely to be engaged, as were those who received mental health services. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A five-year longitudinal study of 531 incarcerated youth, more than half of whom had a disability, showed that those who were working or in school 6 months after release tended to stay involved in positive activities and had not returned to the juvenile facility 12 months after release. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A study involving 887 urban special educators investigated factors that lead to attrition and retention and found several critical factors to consider to increase retention and commitment. A leading negative factor was stress due to job design. Perceived support by principals or other teachers helped alleviate this stress. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

This study investigated the possibility that high levels of direct support in supported employment programs are associated with less typicalness, integration, and wages. The study found that wage and integration outcomes can be increased, even if there is a high level of direct support, if there is coworker training. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Two studies involving adolescents with disabilities examined secondary and transition practices. Findings indicate that career-related work experience and completion of student-identified transition goals were highly associated with improved graduation and employment outcomes. Individualization of services around student goals and personalized attention from staff were highly valued by participants. (CR)

This study examined existing data on 561 individuals with disabilities receiving supported employment services to evaluate questions about gender equity. It found that, although women were perceived as being generally more socially appropriate, they usually worked in jobs traditionally stereotyped by gender. Women also worked fewer hours than did men and therefore earned somewhat less money. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

A study of factors associated with better employment and education outcomes for young people with disabilities found that three factors predicted productive engagement in work and education for young women. Early parenting responsibilities or low income predicted less productive engagement, and when young women and their parents agreed on work and education goals, productive engagement was more likely. (DB)

A survey of 13 vocational programs that used natural supports as one of their strategies for securing and supporting people with disabilities in community jobs found that people with more severe disabilities had fewer wage- and integration-outcomes and fewer typical features of employment compared to those with less severe disabilities. (CR)

This study investigated the use of "natural supports" in the workplace in tandem with supported employment services for employees with severe disabilities. Analysis of data from 462 people in eight states on how "typical" the individual's employment setting was found that incorporating "typical" employment features in workplaces was associated with better wage and integration outcomes. (Author/DB)

This study of 92 special educators and related service providers evaluated two interventions (a series of stress management workshops and a peer-collaboration program) on factors correlated with turnover (burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment). The interventions showed promise as a means of providing on-the-job support for professionals at risk of burnout or exiting the field. (Author/DB)