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Abstract Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium species, seriously threatens the safety of wheat (Triticum aestivum) production. Resistant cultivars and fungicides are frequently used to control these FHB pathogens. However, Fusarium species have been adapting the current FHB control approaches in a manner that raises concern for future FHB control strategies, which could lead to a greater risk of FHB outbreaks. In this study, a total of 521 strains of Fusarium were isolated from Sichuan province of China, to investigate the diversity of Fusarium species and the genes associated with their adaptation. Seven species were identified based on molecular markers and morphological analysis. The virulence assays showed that Fusarium asiaticum (Fa) and Fusarium graminearum (Fg) were the two major causal agents of FHB, with high virulence and more frequent isolates. Fungicide resistance analysis showed that four isolates had developed the resistance to carbendazim, and four isolates had developed the resistance to tebuconazole. Of note, two point-mutation variants (F200Y and E198Q) occurred in the β2-tubulin gene, leading to the carbendazim resistance. The landscape of genomic diversity was analyzed through whole-genome sequencing, revealing a total of 182,811 and 430,733 variants (including: single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNP, insertion and deletion, Indel, and structure variation, SV) among the Fa and Fg isolates, respectively. In addition, potential alterations in gene function (15.22%) were predicted among Fg variants. These alterations offer potential helps for the Fusarium species to adapt to various managements of FHB, which may increase risks in developing fungicide-resistant isolates. However, these annotated genetic variants are valuable resources for further genetic and genomic studies, as well as potential markers to assist disease risk assessment.

Increasing wheat yield is a long-term goal for wheat breeders around the world. Exploiting elite genetic resources and dissecting the genetic basis of important agronomic traits in wheat are the necessary methods for high-yield wheat breeding. This study evaluated nine crucial agronomic traits found in a natural population of 156 wheat varieties and 77 landraces from Sichuan, China in seven environments over two years. The results of this investigation of agronomic traits showed that the landraces had more tillers and higher kernel numbers per spike (KNS), while the breeding varieties had higher thousand-kernel weight (TKW) and kernel weight per spike (KWS). The generalized heritability (H2) values of the nine agronomic traits varied from 0.74 to 0.95. Structure analysis suggested that the natural population could be divided into three groups using 43 198 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers from the wheat 55K SNP chip. A total of 67 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified by the genome-wide association study (GWAS) analysis based on the Q+K method of a mixed linear model. Three important QTLs were analyzed in this study. Four haplotypes of QFTN.sicau-7BL.1 for fertile tillers number (FTN), three haplotypes of QKNS.sicau-1AL.2 for KNS, and four haplotypes of QTKW.sicau-3BS.1 for TKW were detected. FTN-Hap2, KNS-Hap1, and TKW-Hap2 were excellent haplotypes for each QTL based on the yield performance of 42 varieties in regional trials from 2002 to 2013. The varieties with all three haplotypes showed the highest yield compared to those with either two haplotypes or one haplotype. In addition, the KASP-AX-108866053 marker of QTL QKNS.sicau-1AL.2 was successfully distinguished between three haplotypes (or alleles) in 63 varieties based on the number of kernels per spike in regional trials between 2018 and 2021. These genetic loci and reliable makers can be applied in marker-assisted selection or map-based gene cloning for the genetic improvement of wheat yield.

High-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GSs) are the most critical grain storage proteins that determine the unique processing qualities of wheat. Although it is a part of the superior HMW-GS pair (Dx5+Dy10), the contribution of the Dy10 subunit to wheat processing quality remains unclear. In this study, we elucidated the effect of Dy10 on wheat processing quality by generating and analyzing a deletion mutant (with the Dy10-null allele), and by elucidating the changes to wheat flour following the incorporation of purified Dy10. The Dy10-null allele was transcribed normally, but the Dy10 subunit was lacking. These findings implied that the Dy10-null allele reduced the glutenin:gliadin ratio and negatively affected dough strength (i.e., Zeleny sedimentation value, gluten index, and dough development and stability times) and the bread-making quality; however, it positively affected the biscuit-making quality. The incorporation of various amounts of purified Dy10 into wheat flour had a detrimental effect on biscuit-making quality. The results of this study demonstrate that the Dy10 subunit is essential for maintaining wheat dough strength. Furthermore, the Dy10-null allele may be exploited by soft wheat breeding programs.

The spikelet number per spike (SNS) contributes greatly to grain yield in wheat. Identifying various genes that control wheat SNS is vital for yield improvement. This study used a recombinant inbred line population genotyped by the Wheat55K single-nucleotide polymorphism array to identify two major and stably expressed quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for SNS. One of them (QSns.sau-2SY-2D.1) was reported previously, while the other (QSns.sau-2SY-7A) was newly detected and further analyzed in this study. QSns.sau-2SY-7A had a high LOD value ranging from 4.46 to 16.00 and explained 10.21–40.78% of the phenotypic variances. QSns.sau-2SY-7A was flanked by the markers AX-110518554 and AX-110094527 in a 4.75-cM interval on chromosome arm 7AL. The contributions and interactions of both major QTLs were further analyzed and discussed. The effect of QSns.sau-2SY-7A was successfully validated by developing a tightly linked kompetitive allele specific PCR marker in an F2:3 population and a panel of 101 high-generation breeding wheat lines. Furthermore, several genes including the previously reported WHEAT ORTHOLOG OF APO1 (WAPO1), an ortholog of the rice gene ABERRANT PANICLE ORGANIZATION 1 (APO1) related to SNS, were predicted in the interval of QSns.sau-2SY-7A. In summary, these results revealed the genetic basis of the multi-spikelet genotype of wheat line 20828 and will facilitate subsequent fine mapping and breeding utilization of the major QTLs.

Understanding the genetic basis of quality-related traits contributes to the improvement of grain protein concentration (GPC), grain starch concentration (GSC), and wet gluten concentration (WGC) in wheat. In this study, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) based on a mixed linear model (MLM) was performed on 236 wheat accessions, including 160 cultivars and 76 landraces, using a 55K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array in multiple environments. A total of 12 stable QTL/SNPs that control different quality traits in this populations in at least two environments under stripe rust stress were identified. Among these 12, three, seven and two QTLs associated with GPC, GSC and WGC were characterized, respectively, and they were located on chromosomes (chr) 1B, 1D, 2A, 2B, 2D, 3B, 3D, 5D, and 7D with the phenotypic variation explained (PVE) ranging from 4.2 to 10.7%. Compared with the previously reported QTLs/genes, five QTLs (QGsc.sicau-1BL, QGsc.sicau-1DS, QGsc.sicau-2DL.1, QGsc.sicau-2DL.2, and QWgc.sicau-5DL) were potentially novel. KASP markers for the SNPs AX-108770574 and AX-108791420 on chr5D associated with wet gluten concentration were successfully developed. The phenotypes of the cultivars containing the A-allele in AX-108770574 and the T-allele in AX-108791420 were extremely significantly (P

Uppermost-internode diameter (UID) is a key morphological trait associated with spike development and yield potential in wheat. Our understanding of its genetic basis remains largely unknown. Here, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for UID with high-density genetic maps were identified in five wheat recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations. In total, 25 QTLs for UID were detected in five RIL populations, and they were located on chromosomes 1A, 1D (3 QTL), 2B (2), 2D (3), 3B, 3D, 4A, 4B (3), 4D, 5A (5), 5B (2), 6B, and 7D. Of them, five major and stable QTLs (QUid.sau-2CN-1D.1, QUid.sau-2SY-1D, QUid.sau-QZ-2D, QUid.sau-SC-3D, and QUid.sau-AS-4B) were identified from each of the five RIL populations in multiple environments. QUid.sau-2CN-1D.1, QUid.sau-2SY-1D and QUid.sau-SC-3D are novel QTLs. Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) markers tightly linked to them were further investigated for developing near-isogenic lines (NILs) carrying the major loci. Furthermore, candidate genes at these intervals harboring major and stable QTLs were predicted, and they were associated with plant development and water transportation in most cases. Comparison of physical locations of the identified QTL on the ‘Chinese Spring’ reference genome showed that several QTLs including two major ones, QUid.sau-2CN-1D.1 and QUid.sau-2SY-1D, are likely allelic confirming their validity and effectiveness. The significant relationships detected between UID and other agronomic traits and a proper UID were discussed. Collectively, our results dissected the underlying genetic basis for UID in wheat and laid a foundation for further fine mapping and map-based cloning of these QTLs.

Synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW), possesses numerous genes for drought that can help breeding for drought-tolerant wheat varieties. We evaluated 10 root traits at seedling stage in 111 F9 recombinant inbred lines derived from a F2 population of a SHW line (SHW-L1) and a common wheat line, under normal (NC) and polyethylene glycol-simulated drought stress conditions (DC). We mapped quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for root traits using an enriched high-density genetic map containing 120370 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 733 diversity arrays technology markers (DArT) and 119 simple sequence repeats (SSRs). With four replicates per treatment, we identified 19 QTLs for root traits under NC and DC, and 12 of them could be consistently detected with three or four replicates. Two novel QTLs for root fresh weight and root diameter under NC explained 9 and 15.7% of the phenotypic variation respectively, and six novel QTLs for root fresh weight, the ratio of root water loss, total root surface area, number of root tips, and number of root forks under DC explained 8.5–14% of the phenotypic variation. Here seven of eight novel QTLs could be consistently detected with more than three replicates. Results provide essential information for fine-mapping QTLs related to drought tolerance that will facilitate breeding drought-tolerant wheat cultivars.

Abstract Background Phytohormones are key regulators of plant growth, development, and signalling networks involved in responses to diverse biotic and abiotic stresses. Transcriptional reference maps of hormone responses have been reported for several model plant species such as Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, and Brachypodium distachyon. However, because of species differences and the complexity of the wheat genome, these transcriptome data are not appropriate reference material for wheat studies. Results We comprehensively analysed the transcriptomic responses in wheat spikes to seven phytohormones, including indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA), abscisic acid (ABA), ethylene (ET), cytokinin (CK), salicylic acid (SA), and methyl jasmonic acid (MeJA). A total of 3386 genes were differentially expressed at 24 h after the hormone treatments. Furthermore, 22.7% of these genes exhibited overlapping transcriptional responses for at least two hormones, implying there is crosstalk among phytohormones. We subsequently identified genes with expression levels that were significantly and differentially induced by a specific phytohormone (i.e., hormone-specific responses). The data for these hormone-responsive genes were then compared with the transcriptome data for wheat spikes exposed to biotic (Fusarium head blight) and abiotic (water deficit) stresses. Conclusion Our data were used to develop a transcriptional reference map of hormone responses in wheat spikes.

Spike density and processing quality are important traits in modern wheat production and are controlled by multiple gene loci. The associated genes have been intensively studied and new discoveries have been constantly reported during the past few decades. However, no gene playing a significant role in the development of these two traits has been identified. In the current study, a common wheat mutant with extremely compact spikes and good processing quality was isolated and characterized. A new allele (Qc1) of the Q gene (an important domestication gene) responsible for the mutant phenotype was cloned, and the molecular mechanism for the mutant phenotype was studied. Results revealed that Qc1 originated from a point mutation that interferes with the miRNA172-directed cleavage of Q transcripts, leading to its overexpression. It also reduces the longitudinal cell size of rachises, resulting in an increased spike density. Furthermore, Qc1 increases the number of vascular bundles, which suggests a higher efficiency in the transportation of assimilates in the spikes of the mutant than that of wild type. This accounts for the improved processing quality. The effects of Qc1 on spike density and wheat processing quality were confirmed by analyzing nine common wheat mutants possessing four different Qc alleles. These results deepen our understanding of the key roles of Q gene, and provide new insights for the potential application of Qc alleles in wheat quality breeding.

Abstract In this paper, we investigate second harmonic generation in a single hexagonal GaAs nanowire. An excellent frequency converter based on this nanowire excited using a femtosecond laser is demonstrated to operate over a range from 730 nm to 1960 nm, which is wider than previously reported ranges for nanowires in the literature. The converter always operates with a high conversion efficiency of ~10−5 W−1 which is ~103 times higher than that obtained from the surface of bulk GaAs. This nanoscale nolinear optical converter that simultaneously owns high efficiency and broad bandwidth may open a new way for application in imaging, bio-sensing and on-chip all-optical signal processing operations.

The WUSCHEL (WUS)-related homeobox (WOX) gene family coordinates transcription during the early phases of embryogenesis. In this study, a putative WOX2 homolog was isolated and characterized from Aegilops tauschii, the donor of D genome of Triticum aestivum. The sequence consisted of 2045 bp, and contained an open reading frame (ORF), encoded 322 amino acids. The predicted protein sequence contained a highly conserved homeodomain and the WUS-box domain, which is present in some members of the WOX protein family. The full-length ORF was subcloned into prokaryotic expression vector pET-30a, and an approximately 34-kDa protein was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells with IPTG induction. The molecular mass of the expressed protein was identical to that predicted by the cDNA sequence. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that Ae. tauschii WOX2 is closely related to the rice and maize orthologs. Quantitative PCR analysis showed that WOX2 from Ae. tauschii was primarily expressed in the seeds; transcription increased during seed development and declined after the embryos matured, suggesting that WOX2 is associated with embryo development in Ae. tauschii.

Stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), is one of the most damaging diseases of wheat. Chinese wheat cultivar Mianmai 41 showed high resistance against most of the prevailing Pst races in China. Genetic analysis of the F1, F2 and F2:3 populations from a cross between Mianmai 41 and a susceptible line Mingxian 169 indicated that resistance to Pst race CYR32 was conferred by a single dominant gene, temporarily designated as YrMY41. Molecular marker analysis placed the gene on chromosome 1B near the centromere. Six co-dominant genomic SSR markers Xwmc329, Xwmc406, Xgwm18, Xgwm131, Xgwm413, and Xbarc312, and one STS marker Xwe173 linked with the resistance gene. The two closest flanking SSR markers were Xgwm18 and Xwmc406, with genetic distances of 2.0 and 4.9 cM, respectively. A seedling test with 29 Pst isolates indicated the reaction patterns of Mianmai 41 were different from those of lines carrying Yr3, Yr9, Yr10, Yr15, Yr26, and YrCH42 on chromosome 1B. Allelic tests indicated that YrMY41 is likely a new allele at Yr26 locus.

Starch is the major carbohydrate in oat (Avena sativa L.) and starch formation requires the coordinated actions of several synthesis enzymes. In this study, the granule morphology, composition and physicochemical properties of oat starch, as well as the expressions of starch synthesis genes were investigated during oat endosperm development. Under the scanning electron microscopy (SEM), we observed that the unique compound granules were developed in oat endosperms at 10 days post anthesis (DPA) and then fragmented into irregular or polygonal simple granules from 12 DPA until seed maturity. The amylose content, branch chain length of degree of polymerization (DP=13–24), gelatinization temperature and percentage of retrogradation were gradually increased during the endosperm development; whereas the distribution of short chains (DP=6–12) were gradually decreased. The relative expressions of 4 classes of 13 starch synthesis genes characterized in this study indicated that three expression pattern groups were significantly different among gene classes as well as among varied isoforms, in which the first group of starch synthesis genes may play a key role on the initiation of starch synthesis in oat endosperms.

Anthocyanin-rich barley can have great potential in promoting human health and in developing nutraceuticals and functional foods. As different anthocyanin compounds have different antioxidant activities, breeding cultivars with pre-designed anthocyanin compositions could be highly desirable. Working toward this possibility, we assessed and reported for the first time the genetic control of individual anthocyanin compounds in barley. Of the ten anthocyanins assessed, two, peonidin-3-glucoside (P3G) and cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), were major components in the purple pericarp barley genotype RUSSIA68. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping showed that both anthocyanin compounds were the interactive products of two loci, one located on chromosome arm 2HL and the other on 7HS. However, the two different anthocyanin components seem to be controlled by different interactions between the two loci. The effects of the 7HS locus on P3G and C3G were difficult to detect without removing the effect of the 2HL locus. At least one copy of the 2HL alleles from the purple pericarp parent was required for the synthesis of P3G. This does not seem to be the case for the production of C3G which was produced in each of all the different allele combinations between the two loci. Typical maternal effect was also observed in the inheritance of purple pericarp grains in barley. The varied values of different compounds, coupled with their different genetic controls, highlight the need for targeting individual anthocyanins in crop breeding and food processing.

Micronutrient malnutrition affects over three billion people worldwide, especially women and children in developing countries. Increasing the bioavailable concentrations of essential elements in the edible portions of crops is an effective resolution to address this issue. To determine the genetic factors controlling micronutrient concentration in wheat, the quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis for iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and selenium concentrations in two recombinant inbred line populations was performed. In all, 39 QTLs for five micronutrient concentrations were identified in this study. Of these, 22 alleles from synthetic wheat SHW-L1 and seven alleles from the progeny line of the synthetic wheat Chuanmai 42 showed an increase in micronutrient concentrations. Five QTLs on chromosomes 2A, 3D, 4D, and 5B found in both the populations showed significant phenotypic variation for 2–3 micronutrient concentrations. Our results might help understand the genetic control of micronutrient concentration and allow the utilization of genetic resources of synthetic hexaploid wheat for improving micronutrient efficiency of cultivated wheat by using molecular marker-assisted selection.

Aegiliops tauschii is classified into two subspecies: Ae. tauschii ssp. tauschii and Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata. Novel genetic variations exist in Ae. tauschii ssp. tauschii that can be utilized in wheat improvement. We synthesized a hexaploid wheat genotype (SHW-L1) by crossing an Ae. tauschii ssp. tauschii accession (AS60) with a tetraploid wheat genotype (AS2255). A population consisting of 171 F8 recombinant inbred lines was developed from SHW-L1 and Chuanmai 32 to identify QTLs associated with agronomic traits. A new genetic map with high density was constructed and used to detect the QTLs for heading date, kernel width, spike length, spikelet number, and thousand kernel weight. A total of 30 putative QTLs were identified for five investigated traits. Thirteen QTLs were located on D genomes of SHW-L1, six of them showed positive effect on agronomic traits. Chromosome region flanked by wPt-6133–wPt-8134 on 2D carried five environment-independent QTLs. Each QTL accounted for more than 10% phenotypic variance. These QTLs were highly consistent across environments and should be used in wheat breeding.

γ-Gliadins are an important component of wheat seed storage proteins. Four novel γ-gliadin genes (Gli-ng1 to Gli-ng4) were cloned from wheat (Triticum aestivum) and Aegilops species. The novel γ-gliadins were much smaller in molecular size when compared to the typical γ-gliadins, which was caused by deletion of the non-repetitive domain, glutamine-rich region, 3' part of the repetitive domain, and 5' part of the C-terminal, possibly due to illegitimate recombination between the repetitive domain and the C-terminal. As a result, Gli-ng1 and Gli-ng4 only contained two and three cysteine residues, respectively. Gli-ng1, as the representative of novel γ-gliadin genes, has been sub-cloned into an Escherichia coli expression system. SDS-PAGE indicated that the both cysteine residues of Gli-ng1 could participate in the formation of intermolecular disulphide bonds in vitro. Successful cloning of Gli-ng1 from seed cDNA of T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring suggested that these novel γ-gliadin genes were normally transcribed during the development of seeds. Phylogenic analysis indicated that the four novel γ-gliadin genes had a closer relationship with those from the B (S) genome of wheat.

Waterlogging is a widespread limiting factor for wheat production throughout the world. To identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with waterlogging tolerance at early stages of growth, survival rate (SR), germination rate index (GRI), leaf chlorophyll content index (CCI), root length index (RLI), plant height index (PHI), root dry weight index (RDWI), shoot dry weight index (SDWI), and total dry weight index (DWI) were assessed using the International Triticeae Mapping Initiative (ITMI) population W7984/Opata85. Significant and positive correlations were detected for all traits in this population except RLI. A total of 32 QTLs were associated with waterlogging tolerance on all chromosomes except 3A, 3D, 4B, 5A, 5D, 6A, and 6D. Some of the QTLs explained large proportions of the phenotypic variance. One of these is the QTL for GRI on 7A, which explained 23.92% of the phenotypic variation. Of them, 22 alleles from the synthetic hexaploid wheat W7984 contributed positively. These results suggested that synthetic hexaploid wheat W7984 is an important genetic resource for waterlogging tolerance in wheat. These alleles conferring waterlogging tolerance at early stages of growth in wheat could be utilized in wheat breeding for improving waterlogging tolerance.

Fusarium graminearum causes Fusarium head blight (FHB), a devastating disease of wheat. Salicylic acid (SA) is involved in the resistance of wheat to F. graminearum. Cell wall mannoprotein (CWM) is known to trigger defense responses in plants, but its role in the pathogenicity of F. graminearum remains unclear. Here, we characterized FgCWM1 (FG05_11315), encoding a CWM in F. graminearum. FgCWM1 was highly expressed in wheat spikes by 24 h after initial inoculation and was upregulated by SA. Disruption of FgCWM1 (ΔFgCWM1) reduced mannose and protein accumulation in the fungal cell wall, especially under SA treatment, and resulted in defective fungal cell walls, leading to increased fungal sensitivity to SA. The positive role of FgCWM1 in mannose and protein accumulation was confirmed by its expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Compared with wild type (WT), ΔFgCWM1 exhibited reduced pathogenicity toward wheat, but it produced the same amount of deoxynivalenol both in culture and in spikes. Complementation of ΔFgCWM1 with FgCWM1 restored the WT phenotype. Localization analyses revealed that FgCWM1 was distributed on the cell wall, consistent with its structural role. Thus, FgCWM1 encodes a CWM protein that plays an important role in the cell wall integrity and pathogenicity of F. graminearum.

Salicylic acid (SA) is a key defense hormone associated with wheat resistance against Fusarium head blight, which is a severe disease mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum. Although F. graminearum can metabolize SA, it remains unclear how this metabolic activity affects the wheat⁻F. graminearum interaction. In this study, we identified a salicylate hydroxylase gene (FG05_08116; FgNahG) in F. graminearum. This gene encodes a protein that catalyzes the conversion of SA to catechol. Additionally, FgNahG was widely distributed within hyphae. Disrupting the FgNahG gene (ΔFgNahG) led to enhanced sensitivity to SA, increased accumulation of SA in wheat spikes during the early infection stage and inhibited development of head blight symptoms. However, FgNahG did not affect mycotoxin production. Re-introducing a functional FgNahG gene into the ΔFgNahG mutant recovered the wild-type phenotype. Moreover, the expression of FgNahG in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana decreased the SA concentration and the resistance of leaves to F. graminearum. These results indicate that the endogenous SA in wheat influences the resistance against F. graminearum. Furthermore, the capacity to metabolize SA is an important factor affecting the ability of F. graminearum to infect wheat plants.

Genetic diversity of 62 Sichuan wheat landraces accessions of China was investigated by agronomic traits and SSR markers. The landrace population showed the characters of higher tiller capability and more kernels/spike, especially tiller no./plant of six accessions was over 40 and kernels/spike of three accessions was more than 70. A total of 547 alleles in 124 polymorphic loci were detected with an average of 4.76 alleles per locus by 114 SSR markers. Parameters analysis indicated that the genetic diversity ranked as genome A > genome B > genome D, and the homoeologous groups ranked as 5>4>3>1>2>7>6 based on genetic richness (Ri). Furthermore, chromosomes 2A, 1B and 3D had more diversity than that of chromosomes 4A, 7A and 6B. The variation of SSR loci on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2D, 3B, and 4B implied that, in the past, different selective pressures might have acted on different chromosome regions of these landraces. Our results suggested that Sichuan common wheat landraces is a useful genetic resource for genetic research and wheat improvement.

The genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships in the genus Secale L. (rye) was evaluated using 24 Secale cereale microsatellite (SCM) markers. The average polymorphism information content (PIC) value of each microsatellite locus in 30 Secale accessions evaluated was higher than that in 47 cultivated ryes (Secale cereale ssp. cereale). The mean genetic similarity (GS) index in Secale was lower than that in cultivated rye. The highest within-species GS index was observed for S. sylvestre and the lowest for S. strictum, whereas the highest between-species GS index was found between S. cereale and S. vavilovii and the lowest between S. sylvestre and S. cereale. There was no obvious difference in GS levels in the cultivated rye accessions from Asia, Europe, North America or South America. Cluster analysis indicated that all the Secale accessions could be distinguished by the 24 microsatellite loci. We also found that the S. sylvestre accessions were obviously divergent from the accessions of other species and that the S. vavilovii accessions were closely related to the S. cereale accessions. Our results also showed that S. strictum was heterogeneous and showed great within-species differences. The microsatellite-derived dendrogram faithfully reflected the phylogenetic relationships between Secale species but did not indicate a possible domestication process of the cultivated rye based on the geographical sources of the accessions.

Tibetan semi-wild wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. tibetanum Shao) is a semi-wild hexaploid wheat resource that is only naturally distributed in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Brittle rachis and hard threshing are two important characters of Tibetan semi-wild wheat. A whole-genome linkage map of T. aestivum ssp. tibetanum was constructed using a recombinant inbred line population (Q1028×ZM9023) with 186 lines, 564 diversity array technology markers, and 117 simple sequence repeat markers. Phenotypic data on brittle rachis and threshability, as two quantitative traits, were evaluated on the basis of the number of average spike rachis fragments per spike and percent threshability in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping performed using inclusive composite interval mapping analysis clearly identified four QTLs for brittle rachis and three QTLs for threshability. However, three loci on 2DS, 2DL, and 5AL showed pleiotropism for brittle rachis and threshability; they respectively explained 5.3%, 18.6%, and 18.6% of phenotypic variation for brittle rachis and 17.4%, 13.2%, and 35.2% of phenotypic variation for threshability. A locus on 3DS showed an independent effect on brittle rachis, which explained 38.7% of the phenotypic variation. The loci on 2DS and 3DS probably represented the effect of Tg and Br1, respectively. The locus on 5AL was in very close proximity to the Q gene, but was different from the predicted q in Tibetan semi-wild wheat. To our knowledge, the locus on 2DL has never been reported in common wheat but was prominent in T. aestivum ssp. tibetanum accession Q1028. It remarkably interacted with the locus on 5AL to affect brittle rachis. Several major loci for brittle rachis and threshability were identified in Tibetan semi-wild wheat, improving the understanding of these two characters and suggesting the occurrence of special evolution in Tibetan semi-wild wheat.

Gliadin and HMW glutenin subunit variations in 162 spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) accessions were detected by A-PAGE and SDS-PAGE. Higher gliadin variation was observed, and 121 gliadin patterns were detected. A total of 14 HMW-GS alleles were found. There were 2, 5 and 2 alleles at Glu-A1, Glu-B1 and Glu-D1 loci, respectively, resulting in 8 HMW-GS combinations. HMW-GS combination (1, 6+8, 2+12) was the dominant phenotype, which was found in 83.00% of the spelt wheat accessions. These results suggested that the polymorphism of spelt wheat on Gli-1 loci was higher than that on Glu-1 loci.

Salicylic acid (SA), a vital endogenous hormone, plays a crucial role in plant growth and the response to abiotic and biotic stress. Isochorismate synthase (ICS) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) are critical rate-limiting enzymes for SA synthesis. Fusarium head blight (FHB) seriously threatens the safety of wheat production, but increasing the content of SA can enhance FHB resistance. However, the pathway of SA synthesis and regulation in wheat remains unknown. In this study, three wheat ICS (TaICSA, TaICSB, and TaICSD) were identified, and their functions were validated in vitro for isomerizing chorismate to isochorismate. The mutation of one or two homoeoalleles of TaICSA, TaICSB, and TaICSD in the wheat variety 'Cadenza' reduced SA levels under ultraviolet treatment and Fusarium graminearum infection, further enhancing sensitivity to FHB. Overexpression of TaICSA can significantly enhance SA levels and resistance to FHB. To further study SA synthesis pathways in wheat and avoid interference with pathogenicity related genes, the leaves of wild-type Cadenza and different TaICS mutant lines were subjected to ultraviolet treatment for transcriptomic analysis. The results showed that 37 PALs might be involved in endogenous SA synthesis, and 82 WRKY and MYB family transcription factors may regulate the expression of ICS and PAL. These results were further confirmed by RT-PCR. In conclusion, this study expands our knowledge of SA biosynthesis and identifies TaICSA, as well as several additional candidate genes that encode transcription factors for regulating endogenous SA levels, as part of an efficient strategy for enhancing FHB resistance in wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]