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Powdery mildew (PM) is a severe fungal disease of cultivated grapevine worldwide. Proanthocyanidins (PAs) play an important role in resistance to fungal pathogens, however, little is known about proanthocyanidin-mediated PM resistance in grapevine. We identified a WRKY transcription factor, VqWRKY56, from Vitis quinquangularis, the expression of which was significantly induced by PM. Overexpression of VqWRKY56 in V. vinifera increased PA content and reduced susceptibility to PM. Furthermore, the transgenic plants showed more cell death, and increased accumulation of SA and ROS. Transient silencing of VqWRKY56 in V. quinquangularis and V. vinifera reduced PA accumulation and increased the susceptibility to PM. VqWRKY56 interacted with VqbZIPC22 in vitro and in planta. The protein VqWRKY56 can bind to VvCHS3, VvLAR1 and VvANR promoters, and VqbZIPC22 can bind to VvANR promoter. Co-expression of VqWRKY56 and VqbZIPC22 significantly increased the transcript level of VvCHS3, VvLAR1 and VvANR genes. Finally, transient overexpression of VqbZIPC22 in V. vinifera promoted PA accumulation and improved resistance to PM, while transient silencing in V. quinquangularis had the opposite effect. Our study provides new insights into the mechanism of PA regulation by VqWRKY56 in grapevine and provides a basis for further metabolic engineering of PA biosynthesis to improve PM resistance.

Grapevine powdery mildew is caused by Erysiphe necator that seriously harms grape production in the world. Stilbene synthase makes phytoalexins that contribute to the resistance of grapevine against powdery mildew. A novel VqNSTS3 was identified and cloned from Chinese wild Vitis quinquangularis accession Danfeng-2. Novel VqNSTS3 was transferred into susceptible ‘Thompson Seedless’ by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The transgenic plants showed resistance to the disease and activated other resistance-related genes. VqNSTS3 expression in grapevine is regulated by VqWRKY33, which binds to TTGACC in the VqNSTS3 promoter with fungal elicitor responsive element. Furthermore, VqWRKY33 was phosphorylated by VqMAPK3/VqMAPK6 and thus lead to enhanced signal transduction and increased VqNSTS3 expression. ProVqNSTS3::VqNSTS3-GFP of transgenic VqNSTS3 in Arabidopsis thaliana was observed to move to and wrap the pathogen haustoria and block the invasion of Golovinomyces cichoracearum. These results demonstrated that stilbene accumulation of novel VqNSTS3 of a Chinese wild grapevine prevented pathogen invasion and enhanced resistance to powdery mildew. Therefore, VqNSTS3 can be used in generating powdery mildew-resistant grapevines.

Grape ripe rot is an important disease that has seriously damaged the yield and quality of grape worldwide. The disease is caused by Colletotrichum viniferum, a hemibiotrophic fungus that belongs to the Glomerellaceae family of Sordariomycetes class. Here, we present the genome of C. viniferum CvYL2a from grape, based on Illumina HiSeq 2500 and PacBio RS II. The high-quality genome consists of 70 contigs with a 73.41 Mb genome size and encodes 14,668 protein-coding genes. These genes were annotated using Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, EuKaryotic Orthologous Groups, Nonredundant Protein, and Swiss-Prot databases. In addition, we identified a series of genes involved in pathogenicity, including 909 carbohydrate-active enzymes, 67 secondary metabolite gene clusters, and 307 cytochrome P450 enzymes. This genome sequence provides a valuable reference for research on grape–C. viniferum interactions, the pathogenesis of C. viniferum, and comparative genome analyses. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .

Bactrocera dorsalis and its larvae have evolved to cope with the hypoxic environment during their lifetime. In this study, we sequenced the transcriptomes of B. dorsalis under and post anoxia stress. Our data revealed the different biological mechanisms of B. dorsalis in response to anoxia and during recovery from anoxia. The induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs) might be one of the important mechanisms for B. dorsalis to tolerate anoxia. Furthermore, our data showed B. dorsalis acquires energy through gluconeogenesis rather than glycolysis under anoxia and upregulated its lipid metabolism post anoxia. The up-regulation of the genes involved in the Hippo signaling pathway might also play a role in eliminating damaged cells as a result of anoxia. Furthermore, the HIF system of B. dorsalis did not change in response to anoxia stress in this study. We hypothesized that the HIF system in B. dorsalis might be activated by a specific duration of anoxia.

Resveratrol is a phytoalexin that is synthesized by stilbene synthase (STS). Resveratrol in the human diet is known to have beneficial effects on health. We previously identified six novel STS (VqNSTS) transcripts from the transcriptome data of Vitis quinquangularis accession Danfeng-2. However, the functions of and defensive mechanisms triggered by these VqNSTS transcripts remain unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that the expression of five of these six novel members, VqNSTS2-VqNSTS6, can be induced by the powdery mildew-causing fungus Uncinula necator. Additionally, overexpression of VqNSTS4 in the V. vinifera susceptible cultivar Thompson Seedless promoted accumulation of stilbenes and enhanced resistance to U. necator by activating salicylic acid (SA) signalling. Furthermore, our results indicate that the Alfin-like (AL) transcription factor VqAL4 can directly bind to the G-rich element (CACCTC) in the VqNSTS4 promoter and activate gene expression. Moreover, overexpression of VqAL4 in Thompson Seedless enhanced resistance to U. necator by promoting stilbene accumulation and activating SA signalling. Conversely, RNA interference-mediated silencing of VqNSTS4 and VqAL4 resulted in increased susceptibility to U. necator. Collectively, our results reveal that VqNSTS4, regulated by VqAL4, enhances grapevine resistance to powdery mildew by activating SA signalling. Our findings may be useful to improve disease resistance in perennial fruit trees.

Thioredoxin (Trx) genes are ubiquitous in plants and have many regulatory functions. These include seed germination, apoptosis, and cellular redox processes. In this study, 48 members of the Trx gene family were identified in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) through blasting in the 12 × Vitis genome according to Trx domain (PF00085). These are divided into five subfamilies (Trx-A, Trx-B, Trx-O, Trx-TPR and Trx-ERp29) based on their domain features. All are widely distributed in 16 of the 19 chromosomes and chromosomes Un. The gene nomenclature is based on the order of location on the chromosome. The analysis of cis-acting elements in promoters reveals that Trxs are involved in seed development and are responsive to various environmental stimuli. The qRT-PCR analysis of 16 Trx genes in ‘Pinot noir’ and ‘Thompson seedless’ during various stages of seed development show that VvTrxA16 and VvTrxB7 may participate in seed-specific regulation. In summary, our findings enable to provide a basis for the relationships between the VvTrx genes and seed development.

Chronic urticaria (CU) is a common skin disease that affects about 1% of the world's population of all ages and seriously affects patients' quality of life. Therefore, further safe and effective treatments are urgently needed. Therefore, artemisinic acid was investigated in the present study due to its pharmacologic effect on inhibiting mast cell degranulation and chronic urticaria in a mouse model.4Artemisinic acid decreased the symptoms of substance P-induced chronic urticaria in the mouse model and alleviated secretagogue-induced local cutaneous and systemic anaphylaxis through the Lyn-PLC-p38-NF-κB signaling pathway. Artemisinic acid inhibited mast cell degranulation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro. Mechanism analysis demonstrated that it could arrest mast cell activation through the Lyn-PLC-p38/ERK1/2/AKT-NF-κB signaling pathway. Based on the results of in vitro kinase assay of Lyn and PLC, artemisinic acid was a potential small molecule inhibitor of Lyn. Artemisinic acid displayed good structural affinity (KArtemisinic acid can attenuate substance P/MRGPRX2-mediated chronic urticaria and mast cell activation. Artemisinic acid is an antagonist of Lyn kinase and can be developed as a drug candidate to treat allergic diseases.

Anaphylactoid reactions are potentially fatal allergic diseases caused by mast cells (MCs), which release histamine and lipid mediators under certain stimuli. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new drug candidates to treat anaphylactoid reactions. The MrgX2 receptor mediates anaphylactoid reactions that cause inflammatory diseases. Cortex dictamni is a Chinese herb used for treating allergy-related diseases; however, its active compound is still unknown and its mechanism of action has not yet been reported. The aim of this study was to screen the anti-anaphylactoid compound from C. dictamni extracts. An MrgX2/CMC-HPLC method was established for screening MrgX2-specific compounds retained from the alcohol extract of C. dictamni. A mouse model of hindpaw extravasation was used to evaluate the anti-anaphylactoid effect of this ingredient. Intracellular Ca2+ mobilization was assessed using a calcium imaging assay. Enzyme immunoassays were performed to measure cytokine and chemokine release levels. The molecular signaling pathways were explored by western blotting. As a result, dictamnine was identified as an effective compound using the MrgX2/CMC method, which remarkably suppressed MC intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and the release of de novo degranulated substances, and inhibited PKC-PLCγ-IP3R-associated protein signaling molecules. Hence, dictamnine is a novel therapeutic candidate for anaphylactoid reactions via MrgX2.

Pathogens secrete a large number of effectors that manipulate host processes to create an environment conducive to pathogen colonization. However, the underlying mechanisms by which Plasmopara viticola effectors manipulate host plant cells remain largely unclear. In this study, we reported that RXLR31154, a P. viticola RXLR effector, was highly expressed during the early stages of P. viticola infection. In our study, stable expression of RXLR31154 in grapevine (Vitis vinifera) and Nicotiana benthamiana promoted leaf colonization by P. viticola and Phytophthora capsici, respectively. By yeast two-hybrid screening, the 23-kDa oxygen-evolving enhancer 2 (VpOEE2 or VpPsbP), encoded by the PsbP gene, in Vitis piasezkii accession Liuba-8 was identified as a host target of RXLR31154. Overexpression of VpPsbP enhanced susceptibility to P. viticola in grapevine and P. capsici in N. benthamiana, and silencing of NbPsbPs, the homologs of PsbP in N. benthamiana, reduced P. capcisi colonization, indicating that PsbP is a susceptibility factor. RXLR31154 and VpPsbP protein were co-localized in the chloroplast. Moreover, VpPsbP reduced H2 O2 accumulation and activated the 1 O2 signaling pathway in grapevine. RXLR31154 could stabilize PsbP. Together, our data revealed that RXLR31154 reduces H2 O2 accumulation and activates the 1 O2 signaling pathway through stabilizing PsbP, thereby promoting disease.

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) play vital roles in metabolic regulations and stimuli responses in plants. However, little is known about their function in grapevine. Here, we report that VpCDPK9 and VpCDPK13, two paralogous CDPKs from Vitis pseudoreticulata accession Baihe-35-1, appear to positively regulate powdery mildew resistance. The transcription of them in leaves of 'Baihe-35-1' were differentially induced upon powdery mildew infection. Overexpression of VpCDPK9-YFP or VpCDPK13-YFP in the V. vinifera susceptible cultivar Thompson Seedless resulted in enhanced resistance to powdery mildew (YFP, yellow fluorescent protein). This might be due to elevation of SA and ethylene production, and excess accumulation of H2 O2 and callose in penetrated epidermal cells and/or the mesophyll cells underneath. Ectopic expression of VpCDPK9-YFP in Arabidopsis resulted in varied degrees of reduced stature, pre-mature senescence and enhanced powdery mildew resistance. However, these phenotypes were abolished in VpCDPK9-YFP transgenic lines impaired in SA signaling (pad4sid2) or ethylene signaling (ein2). Moreover, both of VpCDPK9 and VpCDPK13 were found to interact with and potentially phosphorylate VpMAPK3, VpMAPK6, VpACS1 and VpACS2 in vivo (ACS, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase). These results suggest that VpCDPK9 and VpCDPK13 contribute to powdery mildew resistance via positively regulating SA and ethylene signaling in grapevine.

Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is a rate-limiting enzyme of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in plants that synthesise many ubiquitous key compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignins, a...

The current worldwide outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been declared a public health emergency. The angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) has been reported as the primary host-cell receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative virus of COVID-19. In this study, we screened ACE2 ligands from Radix Scutellariae and investigated its suppressive effect on SARS-CoV-2 spiked pseudotyped virus in vitro. HEK293T cells stably expressing ACE2 receptors (ACE2 cells) were used to provide the receptor for the ACE2/cell membrane chromatography (CMC) method used for analysis. The SARS-CoV-2-spiked pseudotyped virus was used to examine the anti-viropexis effect of the screened compounds in ACE2 cells. Molecular docking and the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assay were used to determine the binding properties. Oroxylin A exhibited an appreciable suppressive effect against the entrance of the SARS-CoV-2-spiked pseudotyped virus into ACE2 cells, which showed good binding to ACE2 as determined using SPR and CMC. Oroxylin A was shown to be a potential candidate in the treatment for COVID-19 by virtue of its blocking the entrance of SARS-CoV-2 into ACE2 cells by specifically binding to the ACE2 receptor.

Using stenospermocarpic grapes as female parents could improve the seedless ratio of offspring via embryo rescue techniques, so they are widely used for breeding seedless grapes. Here, we report the variation in phenotype, endogenous hormones, and internal cellular structure of ovules during embryo abortion in ‘Thompson Seedless’. Moreover, we used the stenospermocarpic grapes as female parents to breed new seedless grapes. Our result indicated that the seed coat of abnormal ovules turned brown from 38 to 42 days after flowering (DAF). In hormones level, two ratios of endogenous hormones’ content [gibberellic acid (GA3) + indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)]/abscisic acid (ABA) and zeatin riboside (ZR) /abscisic acid (ABA) had decreased by 36 DAF. In paraffin sections of embryo sac, indicated that there were few or no embryos in ovules were observed from 37 to 42 DAF. Importantly, the globular embryos in ‘Thompson Seedless’ were significantly smaller than those in ‘Ruby Seedless’ at 40 DAF, indicating the former had a lower embryo rescue efficiency as a female parent; accordingly, the most suitable time for embryo cultured in vitro was 39 DAF for ‘Thompson Seedless’. Result from embryo rescue, demonstrated that 5 mg/L exogenous brassinolide (BR) promoted embryo recovery, embryo germination, and polyembryony formation of ‘Flame Seedless’. Concurrently, WPM medium containing 1 µM of 6-BA helped embryos germinate into normal plantlets and reduced the abnormal plantlet development percentage. A total of 3573 hybrid ovules and 402 new progeny plants were obtained using the stenospermocarpic grapes as female parents crossed with disease-resistant Chinese wild grapes, among which 212 progeny with seedless trait and 23 with disease-resistant were detected by molecular markers, respectively. By studying phenotype, hormone, and anatomy, the optimal time for embryo rescue in Vitis vinifera cv. ‘Thompson Seedless’ was found. In all, 402 new seedless and disease-resistant hybrids were obtained via embryo rescue when using stenospermocarpic grapevine cultivars as female parents.

Maize crops are sensitive to NaCl stress, which is one of the most harmful abiotic stresses affecting agricultural productivity. To gain further insights into the differential metabolic responses to NaCl stress, we employed metabolomics and physiological approaches to understand the response of salt-tolerant (PH6WC) and sensitive (PH4CV) cultivars of maize. Salt stress caused a significant reduction in root growth, lower root numbers, softened roots, leaf etiolation, inhibition of leaf formation, and decreased shoot height and stem width in both the tolerant and sensitive genotypes compared with the control. These morphological characteristics increased with the progression of the NaCl concentration, however, they were less prominent in the salt-tolerant genotype. Evans blue staining demonstrated that NaCl-induced root cell death, and the root cells of 'PH4CV' were almost completely dead following 9 d of exposure to 100 mM NaCl. Under treatment with 100 mM NaCl, 79 compounds in the roots of 'PH4CV' were identified as being significant metabolites, and 85 compounds were identified as being significant metabolites in the roots of 'PH6WC'. The NaCl-induced changes in the metabolomes of these two maize cultivars indicate that 80 root-based compounds were different between NaCl-treated plants and controls. Among these metabolites, 30 were found in both maize cultivars when responding to NaCl stress. These compounds were associated with the metabolism of some basic compounds such as cis-9-palmitoleic acid, L-pyroglutamic acid, galactinol, deoxyadenosine, and adenine. The changing abundance of the 30 metabolites was not completely consistent in 'PH4CV' and 'PH6WC'. Glucose metabolism was exclusively induced by NaCl in the 'PH4CV' maize seedlings whereas nucleic acid metabolism was more significant in the 'PH6WC' maize seedlings in response to NaCl stress. Overall, 'PH6WC' and 'PH4CV' responded differently to NaCl stress, and this information is helpful in understanding how maize seedlings respond to this type of abiotic stress.

In grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), seedlessness is classified into two distinct types: parthenocarpy and stenospermocarpy. Stenospermocarpy (seedlessness due to seed abortion) in grapevine is an agronomically valuable trait which is completely hereditary and not influenced by various environmental factors. Many hypotheses have been proposed for stenospermocarpy. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying development or abortion of the seed are still poorly understood. To identify genes involved in seed development or abortion in grape, we carried out Sequence-Related Amplified Polymorphism (SRAP)-cDNA analysis of grape seed development, comparing the seedless cultivar Youngle with the seeded cultivar Pinot noir. We identified VviABCG20, which encodes a putative ATP binding cassette G transporter, as a gene more highly expressed in ‘Pinot noir’. VviABCG20 is highly expressed in root, floral bud, seed and the expression level of VviABCG20 in all of five seeded grapevine cultivars tested was generally higher than that observed in seedless cultivars. Sequencing of VviABCG20 cDNAs from six stenospermocarpic seedless and seven seeded genotypes revealed that the seed-associated expression pattern of VviABCG20 was unrelated to sequence difference within the transcribed regions. Suppression of the tomato homolog of VviABCG20 in developing tomato fruit led to reduction in seed numbers, suggesting that LeABCG20 plays an essential role in seed development. Our experiments suggest that regulation of VviABCG20 is associated with seed development, and provide a new insight into the mechanism underlying seed abortion in stenospermocarpic grapes.

Objectives To investigate the inhibitory effects of Kaempferol, a natural flavonol active compound, on pseudo-allergic reactions (in vivo and in vitro), particularly on the mechanism underlying its effect in human mast cells. Methods Compound 48/80 (C48/80)-induced immunoglobulin E (IgE)-independent passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) model and systemic anaphylaxis were applied to investigate the anti-allergic activity of Kaempferol. The degranulation assay, calcium imaging and the secretion of cytokines and chemokines were used to evaluate the inhibitory effect on mast cell activation. Western blot analysis was performed to investigate intracellular calcium fluctuation-related signalling pathways. Key findings Kaempferol dose-dependently attenuated C48/80-induced mice hind paw swelling, dye extravasation and skin mast cell degranulation, and rehabilitated the hypothermia, as well as reduced the serum concentrations of histamine, tryptase, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Furthermore, Kaempferol suppressed C48/80-triggered human MC degranulation and calcium fluctuations by inhibiting phospholipase Cγ (PLCγ) phosphorylation and subsequent cytokines synthesis pathways. Conclusions The inhibition of the process of PLCγ phosphorylation to Ca2+ mobilization represents a major strategy in Kaempferol-suppressed pseudo-allergic reactions. Thus, Kaempferol could be considered as a therapeutic drug candidate for non-IgE-mediated allergic reactions or inflammations.

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are ubiquitous in our daily life nowadays. Among them, ultraviolet LEDs are unique because of their wide range of potential applications, spanning from biomedicine, env...

Resveratrol is notable not only for its functions in disease resistance in plants but also for its health benefits when it forms part of the human diet. Identification of new transcription factors helps to reveal the regulatory mechanisms of stilbene synthesis. Here, the WRKY53 transcription factor was isolated from the Chinese wild grape, Vitis quinquangularis. Vqwrky53 was expressed in a variety of tissues and responded to powdery mildew infection and to exogenous hormone application. VqWRKY53 was located in the nucleus and had transcriptional activation activity in yeast. A yeast two-hybrid assay and a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay confirmed that VqWRKY53 interacted physically with VqMYB14 and VqMYB15, which have previously been reported to regulate stilbene synthesis. When Vqwrky53 was overexpressed in grape leaves, the expression of VqSTS32 and VqSTS41 and the content of stilbenes were increased. A yeast one-hybrid assay demonstrated that VqWRKY53 could bind directly to the promoters of STS genes. Overexpression of Vqwrky53 activated β-glucuronidase expression, driven by STS promoters, and co-expressing Vqwrky53 with VqMYB14 and VqMYB15 showed stronger regulatory functions. Heterologous overexpression of Vqwrky53 in Arabidopsis accelerated leaf senescence and disease resistance to PstDC3000.

Fusion with host cell membrane is the main mechanism of infection of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we propose a new strategy to double block SARS-CoV-2 membrane fusion by using Harringtonine (HT), a small-molecule antagonist. By using cell membrane chromatography (CMC), we found that HT specifically targeted the SARS-CoV-2 S protein and host cell TMPRSS2, and then confirmed that HT can inhibit pseudotyped virus membrane fusion. Furthermore, HT successfully blocked SARS-CoV-2 infection, especially in the delta and Omicron mutant. Since HT is a small-molecule antagonist, it is minimally affected by the continuous variation of SARS-CoV-2. Our findings show that HT is a potential small-molecule antagonist with a new mechanism of action against SARS-CoV-2 infection, and thus HT mainly targets the S protein, and thus, greatly reduces the damage of the S protein’s autotoxicity to the organ system, has promising advantages in the clinical treatment of COVID-19.

In viticulture, grafting has been practiced widely and influences grape development as well as berry and wine quality. However, there is limited understanding of the effects of rootstocks on grape phenolic compounds, which are located primarily in the berry skin and contribute to certain sensory attributes of wine. In this study, scion–rootstock interactions were investigated at the green-berry stage and the veraison stage when grapevines were hetero-grafted with three commonly used rootstock genotypes (5BB, 101-14MG, and SO4). Physiological investigations showed that hetero-grafts, especially CS/5BB, contained higher concentrations of total proanthocyanidins (PAs) and various PA components in berry skins compared with the auto-grafted grapevines. Further metabolomics analysis identified 105 differentially accumulated flavonoid compounds, the majority of which, including anthocyanins, PAs, and flavonols, were significantly increased in the berry skins of hetero-grafted grapevines compared with auto-grafted controls. In addition, transcriptomic analysis of the same samples identified several thousand differentially expressed genes between hetero-grafted and auto-grafted vines. The three rootstocks not only increased the transcript levels of stilbene, anthocyanin, PA, and flavonol synthesis genes but also affected the expression of numerous transcription factor genes. Taken together, our results suggest that hetero-grafting can promote phenolic compound accumulation in grape berry skin during development. These findings provide new insights for improving the application value of grafting by enhancing the accumulation of nutritious phenolic components in grape.

The seed coat gene VviAGL11 coordinates with endosperm development genes FIS2, PHERESE1 and IKU2 and functions as the key regulator in seed development and abortion processes in grapevine. Seed development is essential for the reproduction of flowering plants. Seed abortion is a specific characteristic that produces seedless berries and is often observed in cultivated grapevines. Although seedlessness is an important trait for table and dried grapevine production, the mechanism of seed abortion remains poorly understood. This research aimed to analyze the co-expression of the seed coat development gene VviAGL11 and the endosperm development genes FERTILIZATION INDEPENDENT SEED2 (FIS2), PHERESE1 and HAIKU2 (IKU2) that regulate seedless fruit development in grapevine. The transcript levels of VviAGL11, FIS2, PHERESE1 and IKU2 all decreased during seed abortion in the seedless grape ‘Thompson Seedless’ plants, compared to those of the seeded grape ‘Pinot Noir’. The transcript levels of the salicylic acid (SA)-dependent defense response genes EDS1, NPR1, NDR1 and SID2 were higher in ‘Thompson Seedless’ than ‘Pinot Noir’ during seed development. Also, WRKY3, WRKY6 and WRKY52, which participate in the SA pathway, were higher expressed in ‘Thompson Seedless’ than in ‘Pinot Noir’, indicating that SA-dependent defense responses may regulate seed abortion. The genes related to synthesis and metabolism of gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) also showed differential expression between ‘Thompson Seedless’ and ‘Pinot Noir’. Exogenous applications of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to inflorescences of three stenospermocarpy grapevines before flowering showed that GA3 was critical prominently in seed development. Therefore, the co-expression of seed coat and endosperm development-related genes, SA pathway genes, and genes for the synthesis and metabolism of GA3 together enhance seed abortion in seedless grapes.

Grape ripe rot is an important disease that has seriously damaged the yield and quality of grape worldwide. The disease is caused by

Excessive reactions to allergens can induce systemic, life-threatening physiological dysfunction (anaphylaxis) in humans. The surface of mast cells expresses high-affinity IgE receptors that play a vital role during anaphylaxis. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential non-toxic fatty acid in humans. Since it has been reported having potential to regulate pro-inflammatory reactions, we postulated that ALA could inhibit anaphylaxis by down-regulating Lyn kinase phosphorylation. We found that local and systematic inflammation induced by albumin from chicken egg white (OVA) were attenuated by ALA in vivo. Furthermore, ALA inhibited IgE-mediated Ca