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Russian Abstract:Основной целью работы было выявление лучших практик поддержки новых технологических компаний (стартапов). В первой главе обобщены лучшие практики и подходы поддержки стартапов в развитых странах, во второй главе – даны примеры развивающихся стран мира. В третьей главе приводятся выводы и основные рекомендации для российских властей на основе проведенного анализа с учетом современной ситуации. English Abstract:The main goal of the work was to identify the best practices for supporting new technology companies (startups). The first chapter summarizes the best practices and approaches to supporting start-ups in developed countries, and the second chapter provides examples of developing countries of the world. The third chapter contains conclusions and main recommendations for the Russian authorities based on the analysis carried out taking into account the current situation.

Russian Abstract: Длительная история поддержки малых и средних предприятий в России до сих пор не привела к активному развитию предпринимательства, поэтому текущие принципы поддержки требуют корректировки. Основной целью данной работы был анализ и обобщение соответствующих теоретических и эмпирических исследований, посвященных экосистемному подходу в поддержке малых и средних предприятий. Обоснована необходимость поддержки малых и средних предприятий, рассмотрены предпосылки реализации такой поддержки на разных уровнях, приведена критика традиционных подходов к поддержке МСП и проанализированы обоснования применения экосистемного подхода к стимулированию предпринимательства. Среди эмпирических исследований государственной поддержки малых и средних предприятий авторы отдельно рассмотрели массовую поддержку МСП, поддержку технологичных компаний и быстрорастущих фирм, а также региональную поддержку МСП с элементами экосистемного подхода. English Abstract: The long history of support for small and medium enterprises in Russia has not yet led to the active development of entrepreneurship, so the current principles of support require adjustment. The main goal of this work was to analyze and summarize the relevant theoretical and empirical studies on the ecosystem approach in supporting small and medium enterprises. The necessity of supporting small and medium-sized enterprises is substantiated, the prerequisites for the implementation of such support at different levels are examined, criticism of traditional approaches to supporting SMEs is presented, and the rationale for applying the ecosystem approach to stimulating entrepreneurship is analyzed. Among empirical studies of state support for small and medium-sized enterprises, the authors separately considered the massive support for SMEs, support for technology companies and fast-growing firms, as well as regional support for SMEs with elements of an ecosystem approach.

Against the backdrop of coronavirus pandemic-induced economic crises, small and medium business sector oriented towards off-line services provision has been worst-hit. In reality, demand for services provided by catering, entertainment, tourism, hospitality, beauty-business, and non-food retail has declined several-fold amid lockdown. This being said, the need to pay wages, taxes, social contributions, rental charges, bank credit interest, and contractors for supplies and other services has remained. All types of businesses who missed the chance to switchover to online services provision or stick to business model for rendering exclusively personal off-line services to date are exposed to bankruptcy risk. Cash gap is on the rise that can lead to bankruptcy of multiple small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) unable rapidly and without losing work performance to switchover to the online regime especially in large Russian cities. In this memorandum we present assessment of the crisis impact on income, employment, lending, and the number of SMEs.

Russian Abstract: За рубежом стимулирование и поддержка малого и среднего предпринимательства давно является одним из важнейших направлений государственной политики в том числе на уровне регионов и отдельных территорий. Именно на региональном уровне ярче всего проявляются положительные экономические и социальные эффекты, возникающие в результате развития малого и среднего предпринимательства. В работе на основе теоретических и эмпирических работ, посвященных исследованию взаимосвязей между предпринимательством и региональным развитием рассмотрен международный опыт стимулирования малого и среднего предпринимательства и проанализированы примеры благоприятного влияния предпринимательской политики на социально-экономическое развитие территорий. English Abstract: Abroad, stimulating and supporting small and medium-sized businesses has long been one of the most important areas of state policy, including at the level of regions and individual territories. It is at the regional level that the positive economic and social effects resulting from the development of small and medium-sized businesses are most pronounced. On the basis of theoretical and empirical works, devoted to the study of the relationship between business and regional development, the international experience of stimulating small and medium-sized businesses is reviewed and examples of the favorable influence of business policy on the socio-economic development of territories are analyzed.

Support of the small and medium sized entrepreneurship (SME) sector is recognized to be one of Russia’s economic policy priorities. It is customary to speak of that sector’s low level of development compared with other countries. However, when comparable estimates are applied, the gap does not appear to be catastrophic. The relative share of SMEs in the value added produced by Russia’s business sector amounts to about 44 percent, in the developed countries – OECD member states it amounts on average to 55 percent, in the USA – to 48 percent, and in Canada – to 30 percent. The problems faced by Russian SMEs, in qualitative terms, are as follows: the percentage of exporters and technological startups is low, and a greater part of that sector is unregulated; in 2018, the relative share of medium sized firms and the number of technological startups shrank even further.

Background: It is scientifically uncertain whether in utero exposure to low-dose ionising radiation increases the lifetime risk of haematological malignancies. Methods: We pooled two cohorts from the Southern Urals comprising offspring of female workers of a large nuclear facility (the Mayak Production Association) and of women living in areas along the Techa River contaminated by nuclear accidents/waste from the same facility, with detailed dosimetry. Results: The combined cohort totalled 19 536 subjects with 700 504 person-years at risk over the period of incidence follow-up, and slightly more over the period of mortality follow-up, yielding 58 incident cases and 36 deaths up to age 61 years. Risk was increased in subjects who received in utero doses of ⩾80 mGy (excess relative risk (ERR): 1.27; 95% confidence interval (CI): −0.20 to 4.71), and the risk increased consistently per 100 mGy of continuous exposure in utero (ERR: 0.77; CI: 0.02 to 2.56). No association was apparent in mortality-based analyses. Results for leukaemia and lymphoma were similar. A very weak positive association was observed between incidence and postnatal exposure. Conclusions: In summary, the results suggest a positive association between in utero exposure to ionising radiation and risk of haematological malignancies, but the small number of outcomes and inconsistent incidence and mortality findings preclude firm conclusions.

Russian Abstract: Несмотря на активную поддержку сферы малого и среднего предпринимательства, показатели ее развития в России достаточно сильно отстают от аналогичных в развитых странах, в том числе ввиду особенностей институциональной среды. Поэтому актуально изучение факторов, влияющих на предпринимательскую активность. Основной целью данной работы был подробный анализ и обобщение соответствующих эмпирических исследований. В результате было выявлено влияние следующих факторов: индивидуальные характеристики предпринимателей, институциональные условия, человеческий капитал, накопленное богатство и агломерационные эффекты. Полученные результаты в дальнейшем позволят принимать обоснованные решения в сфере поддержки малого и среднего предпринимательства. English Abstract: Despite active support of small and medium-sized business, its development indicators in Russia lag far behind those in developed countries, including due to the peculiarities of the institutional environment. Therefore, it is important to study the factors that affect entrepreneurial activity. The main goal of this work was a detailed analysis and generalization of the relevant empirical studies. As a result, the influence of the following factors was revealed: individual characteristics of entrepreneurs, institutional conditions, human capital, accumulated wealth and agglomeration effects. The obtained results will make it possible to make informed decisions in the sphere of supporting small and medium-sized businesses.

In this study, lung cancer risk from occupational plutonium exposure was analyzed in a pooled cohort of Mayak and Sellafield workers, two of the most informative cohorts in the world with detailed plutonium urine monitoring programs. The pooled cohort comprised 45,817 workers: 23,443 Sellafield workers first employed during 1947-2002 with follow-up until the end of 2005 and 22,374 Mayak workers first employed during 1948-1982 with follow-up until the end of 2008. In the pooled cohort 1,195 lung cancer deaths were observed (789 Mayak, 406 Sellafield) but only 893 lung cancer incidences (509 Mayak, 384 Sellafield, due to truncated follow-up in the incidence analysis). Analyses were performed using Poisson regression models, and were based on doses derived from individual radiation monitoring data using an updated dose assessment methodology developed in the study. There was clear evidence of a linear association between cumulative internal plutonium lung dose and risk of both lung cancer mortality and incidence in the pooled cohort. The pooled point estimates of the excess relative risk (ERR) from plutonium exposure for both lung cancer mortality and incidence were within the range of 5-8 per Gy for males at age 60. The ERR estimates in relationship to external gamma radiation were also significantly raised and in the range 0.2-0.4 per Gy of cumulative gamma dose to the lung. The point estimates of risk, for both external and plutonium exposure, were comparable between the cohorts, which suggests that the pooling of these data was valid. The results support point estimates of relative biological effectiveness (RBE) in the range of 10-25, which is in broad agreement with the value of 20 currently adopted in radiological protection as the radiation weighting factor for alpha particles, however, the uncertainty on this value (RBE = 21; 95% CI: 9-178) is large. The results provide direct evidence that the plutonium risks in each cohort are of the same order of magnitude but the uncertainty on the Sellafield cohort plutonium risk estimates is large, with observed risks consistent with no plutonium risk, and risks five times larger than those observed in the Mayak cohort.

Background Previous studies have shown that acute external in utero exposure to ionizing radiation can increase cancer risk. It is not known whether chronic exposure at low dose rates, including due to radionuclide intake, influences the lifetime risk of solid cancers in the offspring. The objective of this study was to investigate solid cancer risk after in utero irradiation. Methods Cancer incidence and mortality over a 60-year period (from January 1950 to December 2009) were analyzed in the Urals Prenatally Exposed Cohort (UPEC). The cohort comprised in utero exposed offspring of Mayak Production Association female workers and of female residents of Techa River villages. Some of the offspring also received postnatal exposure, either due to becoming radiation workers themselves or due to continuing to live in the contaminated areas of the Techa River. The mortality analyses comprised 16,821 subjects (601,372 person-years), and the incidence analyses comprised 15,813 subjects (554,411 person-years). Poisson regression was used to quantify the relative risk as a function of the in utero soft tissue dose (with cumulative doses up to 944.9 mGy, mean dose of 14.1 mGy in the pooled cohort) and the postnatal stomach dose for solid cancer incidence and mortality. Results When a log-linear model was used, relative risk of cancer per 10 mGy of in utero dose was 0.99 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.96 to 1.01) based on incidence data and 0.98 (CI = 0.94 to 1.01) based on mortality data. Postnatal exposure to ionizing radiation was positively associated with the solid cancer risk in members of the UPEC, with a relative risk of 1.02 per 10mGy CI = 1.00 to 1.04). Conclusions No strong evidence was found that chronic low-dose-rate exposure of the embryo and fetus increased the risk of solid cancers in childhood or in adulthood. For both incidence and mortality, a tendency towards a decreased relative risk was noted with increasing doses to soft tissues of the fetus. Further follow-up will provide more precise radiation risk estimates of solid cancer as cohort members are approaching their 60s and cancer becomes more common.

Background The city of Ozyorsk (Southern Urals) was created as a secret city in 1945 and is a closed city until today. It housed workers of the earliest and one of the country’s largest nuclear facilities. Workers of the nuclear reactors, radiochemical or reprocessing plants were exposed to high levels of ionising radiation in the early years of operation and possibly further exposed from inhalation of plutonium aerosols. Methods The cause-of-death registry of Ozyorsk received paper copies of original death certificates of all deaths of residents of the city. Data were analysed for recent mortality rates (1998–2010) and time trends in age-standardised mortality rates between 1953 and 2010 of main groups of causes of deaths, in particular cancer. Results Comparing workers of the three main plant types with the remainder of the Ozyorsk residents, and with national figures, all-cause mortality rates were lowest among workers, with ratios compared to national figures of 0.65 (men) and 0.56 (women), and compared to the other residents of 0.77 (men) and of 0.74 (women). For cancer overall, the differences were smaller in men (ratio between workers and national figures of 0.86) and there were no differences in women (ratio of 1.00), but ratios differed by cancer type. Most cancer deaths were however least common in the workers, including leukaemia. Over the last 60 years, all-cause mortality has gradually increased among men in all three groups but was stable among women, whereas cancer death rates have slightly declined in both sexes. Conclusions Healthy worker effect, relatively better living conditions in Ozyorsk and healthier lifestyles may explain the lower mortality rates in Ozyorsk. Overall mortality time trends in Ozyorsk were similar to the entire country. No apparent radiation-related effects were seen in this population-level analysis, but the radiation-related risks can be better addressed in individual-level studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12940-015-0078-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Long-term effects of in utero exposure to ionizing radiation remain poorly quantified in humans. In this study, the risk of hematologic malignancies was investigated in offspring of female workers of the Mayak Production Association, a large Russian nuclear facility. Excess relative risks (ERR) for exposure to gamma radiation and plutonium were estimated in a cohort of 8,466 offspring who were born between January 1, 1948 and December 31, 1988 and followed until 2009. An unstable linear ERR of 1.12 (95% CI 0.11-3.44) per 100 mGy gamma exposure in utero was estimated based on 32 incident hematologic malignancies in 277,002 person-years under risk. The ERR was increased in the dose category 20-79 mGy gamma exposure in utero (1.75, 95% CI 0.04; 5.63), while the other dose categories showed decreased or unstable estimates. Leukemia showed an ERR of 1.76 (95% CI 0.01-8.33) per 100 mGy based on 13 cases. There was no consistent association with plutonium exposure. While an increased risk of hematologic malignancies after gamma exposure in utero was suggested, the small numbers prevented more definitive conclusions.

Little is known about long-term cancer risks following in utero radiation exposure. We evaluated the association between in utero radiation exposure and risk of solid cancer and leukemia mortality among 8,000 offspring, born from 1948–1988, of female workers at the Mayak Nuclear Facility in Ozyorsk, Russia. Mother’s cumulative gamma radiation uterine dose during pregnancy served as a surrogate for fetal dose. We used Poisson regression methods to estimate relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of solid cancer and leukemia mortality associated with in utero radiation exposure and to quantify excess relative risks (ERRs) as a function of dose. Using currently available dosimetry information, 3,226 (40%) offspring were exposed in utero (mean dose = 54.5 mGy). Based on 75 deaths from solid cancers (28 exposed) and 12 (6 exposed) deaths from leukemia, in utero exposure status was not significantly associated with solid cancer: RR = 0.94, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.49; ERR/Gy = −0.1 (95% CI < −0.1 to 4.1), or leukemia mortality; RR = 1.65, 95% CI 0.52 to 5.27; ERR/Gy = −0.8 (95% CI < −0.8 to 46.9). These initial results provide no evidence that low-dose gamma in utero radiation exposure increases solid cancer or leukemia mortality risk, but the data are not inconsistent with such an increase. As the offspring cohort is relatively young, subsequent analyses based on larger case numbers are expected to provide more precise estimates of adult cancer mortality risk following in utero exposure to ionizing radiation.