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Summary Ferroptosis, a type of oxidative stress cell death, has been implicated in cell injury in several diseases, and treatments with specific inhibitors have been shown to protect cells and tissues. Here we demonstrated that a treatment with the nitroxide radical, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl (TEMPO), prevented the ferroptotic cell death in an airborne manner. Other TEMPO derivatives and lipophilic antioxidants, such as Trolox and ferrostatin-1, also prevented cell death induced by erastin and RSL3; however, only TEMPO exhibited inhibitory activity from a physically distant location. TEMPO vaporized without decomposing and then dissolved again into a nearby water solution. Volatilized TEMPO inhibited glutamate-induced cell death in mouse hippocampal cell lines and also reduced neuronal cell death in a mouse ischemia model. These results suggest that TEMPO is a unique cell protective agent that acts in a volatility-mediated manner.

Inhibitors against cystine-glutamate antiporter, including erastin, elicit ferroptotic cell death. The erastin-induced ferroptotic cell death appears to be caused by cysteine as well as glutathione depletion. Cysteine is an essential substrate for sulfane sulfur producing systems in cells, generating persulfides that function as intracellular antioxidants and intermediates in iron-sulfur cluster production. Therefore, we examined whether botanical sulfane sulfur donors such as diallyl trisulfide (DATS) and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) prevent ferroptotic cell death in HT1080 cells treated with erastin. As a result, DMTS (20 μM) and DATS (10 μM) rescued the erastin-treated HT1080 cells by 69.6% and 91.6%, respectively. Furthermore, DMTS-containing squeeze of cabbage (2.0 g/L) and DATS-containing squeeze of garlic (0.07 g/L) rescued the erastin-treated HT1080 cells by 76.5% and almost 100%, respectively. In conclusion, the ingestion of trisulfides may bring about increased resistance to ferroptotic cell death in vivo.

In cancer cells the small compounds erastin and RSL3 promote a novel type of cell death called ferroptosis, which requires iron‐dependent accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species. Here we assessed the contribution of lipid peroxidation activity of lipoxygenases (LOX) to ferroptosis in oncogenic Ras‐expressing cancer cells. Several 12/15‐LOX inhibitors prevented cell death induced by erastin and RSL3. Furthermore, siRNA‐mediated silencing of ALOX15 significantly decreased both erastin‐induced and RSL3‐induced ferroptotic cell death, whereas exogenous overexpression of ALOX15 enhanced the effect of these compounds. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed that the ALOX15 protein consistently localizes to cell membrane during the course of ferroptosis. Importantly, treatments of cells with ALOX15‐activating compounds accelerated cell death at low, but not high doses of erastin and RSL3. These observations suggest that tumor ferroptosis is promoted by LOX‐catalyzed lipid hydroperoxide generation in cellular membranes.

Oxo-octadecadienoic acids (OxoODEs) act as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists biologically, and are known to be produced in the lipoxygenase/linoleate system. OxoODEs seem to originate from the linoleate alkoxyl radicals that are generated from (E/Z)-hydroperoxy octadecadienoic acids ((E/Z)-HpODEs) by a pseudoperoxidase reaction that is catalyzed by ferrous lipoxygenase. However, the mechanism underlying the conversion of alkoxyl radical into OxoODE remains obscure. In the present study, we confirmed that OxoODEs are produced in the lipoxygenase/linoleate system in an oxygen-dependent manner. Interestingly, we revealed a correlation between the (E/Z)-OxoODEs content and the (E/E)-HpODEs content in the system. (E/E)-HpODEs could have been derived from (E/E)-linoleate peroxyl radicals, which are generated by the reaction between a free linoleate allyl radical and an oxygen molecule. Notably, the ferrous lipoxygenase-linoleate allyl radical (LOx(Fe2+)-L·) complex, which is an intermediate in the lipoxygenase/linoleate system, tends to dissociate into LOx(Fe2+) and a linoleate allyl radical. Subsequently, LOx(Fe2+) converts (E/Z)-HpODEs to an (E/Z)-linoleate alkoxyl radical through one-electron reduction. Taken together, we propose that (E/Z)-OxoODEs and (E/E)-HpODEs are produced through radical-radical dismutation between (E/Z)-linoleate alkoxyl radical and (E/E)-linoleate peroxyl radical. Furthermore, the production of (E/Z)-OxoODEs and (E/E)-HpODEs was remarkably inhibited by a hydrophobic radical scavenger, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO). On the contrary, water-miscible radical scavengers, 4-hydroxyl-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (OH-TEMPO) and 3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-3-pyrroline-N-oxyl (CmΔP) only modestly or sparingly inhibited the production of (E/Z)-OxoODEs and (E/E)-HpODEs. These facts indicate that the radical-radical dismutation between linoleate alkoxyl radical and linoleate peroxyl radical proceeds in the interior of micelles.