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Mammalian spermatozoa are free motile cells composed of heads and tails. The tail of mammalian spermatozoa vary considerably in length depending on the species. The middle piece is the part of the tail characterized by the presence of closely packed mitochondria forming a sheath. The general organization of the Fibrous Sheath is similar in sperm tails of mammals and reptiles, but is modified in birds. The demonstration has been made that the tail of spermatozoa cannot be equated to the flagellae of unicellular organisms. Irons suggested that it may serve to channel proteins from the surrounding cytoplasm toward the connecting piece and the developing tail. Since the narrow periaxonemal cytoplasmic compartment is then eliminated from the proximal segment of the forming tail, one can speculate that the precursor proteins have a facilitated access to the outer dense fibers anlagen.

Lethal collisions with ships are limiting the recovery of several at-risk whale species worldwide. In the St. Lawrence Estuary (Quebec, Canada), the endangered blue whale and of special concern fin whale are among the migratory species subject to collisions with large ships. In 2011, a working group composed of representatives from the maritime industry, the government, non-governmental organizations, and academia was created to explore solutions to mitigate ship-whale collisions in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Adopting an adaptive risk management framework, the working group took advantage of the best available scientific data and tools to co-construct realistic collision mitigation options and evaluate their likely benefits for whale conservation and costs for the industry. In 2013, the working group recommended the implementation of voluntary measures to mitigate collision risks, consisting of a slow-down area, a no-go area, and a caution area; a recommended route was added in 2014. Along with the voluntary framework, the working group agreed to continuously monitor compliance with and assess effectiveness of these mitigation measures. After the fourth year of implementation, voluntary measures showed encouraging results, with a reduction of up to 40% of lethal collision risks with fin whales in the highest density area. This reduction in risk is mainly related to ship speed reduction in the slow-down area from 14.1 ± 2.6 knots in 2012 to 11.3 ± 1.7 knots since 2014. The presence of a mandatory pilotage area overlapping with the slow-down area was instrumental to facilitate communication about the mitigation measures, with the pilotage corporation sitting as a regular member of the working group. This resulted in significantly slower speeds in the slow-down area for ships with a pilot from the pilotage corporation onboard compared to those without (-0.8 knots, p-value < 0.001). It is also likely to explain the weaker compliance of the maritime industry with the no-go area located outside of the mandatory pilotage area. Other factors of success include: the continuous dedication of the government to a voluntary and transparent participatory process; the use of available data, tools and institutions; the presence of an environmental certification program representative in the working group; and the adoption by consensus of an adaptive risk management approach. The traditional regulatory approach to conservation is often blamed for its focus on deterring negative behaviors, doing nothing to encourage and reward positive ones. In agreement with other case studies, the benefits of the voluntary measures implemented in the St. Lawrence Estuary include the pro-active commitment from the industry (which is likely to reduce conflicts with regulators), the greater flexibility and freedom that allowed to come up with cost-effective and tailored-made mitigation measures, and the fast achievement of conservation gains. More importantly perhaps, the human and working capital built throughout the concertation process have the potential to be a fundamental cornerstone in dealing with more complex issues such as the chronically increasing level of underwater noise in whale habitats.

Background In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Golgi apparatus consists of individual networks of membranous tubules interspersed throughout the cytoplasm. When sec23 and sec18 mutants are shifted from the permissive (20°C) to the restrictive (37°C) temperature, the secretory pathway is blocked between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi elements. When examined with an electron microscope, sec23 displays an excess of ER membranes, whereas sec18 accumulates small vesicles. The present investigation describes the kinetics of the ultrastructural modifications of the Golgi and vesicular elements when sec23 and sec18 mutants are shifted for 10 min to restrictive temperature and then returned to permissive temperature for various time intervals. Methods S. cerevisiae sec23and sec18 mutants from exponentially growing cultures at 20°C were maintained for 10 min at the restrictive temperature of 37°C and returned to the permissive temperature of 20°C for different time intervals. Following fixation in glutaraldehyde and postfixation in potassium ferrocyanide reduced osmium, 80- to 200-nm–thick sections were prepared from Epon-embedded yeast cells. Using the thicker sections, stereopairs of electron microscopy photographs were prepared and used to visualize the three-dimensional configuration of the organelles. To follow the modifications of cell organelles, cell sections were selected at random in thinner sections and cell organelles were scored. Results At permissive temperature (20°C), the Golgi apparatus consisted of individual networks of tubules dispersed in the cytoplasm, as in the wild type strain. When both mutants were shifted for 10 min at the restrictive temperature (37°C), the main structural feature was the disappearance of all Golgi networks. In sec23 mutant cells, there was an increase in number of tubular, nonnodular networks corresponding to terminal portions of the endoplasmic reticulum; in sec18 cells, small 20- to 50-nm tubules and vesicles accumulated in the cytoplasm. Within minutes after the return of sec23 cells to permissive temperature (20°C), small vesicles and tubules started to accumulate to reach a number similar or greater than that noted in sec18 cells observed under the same conditions. At later time intervals and in both mutants, the small tubules and vesicles decreased in number. This decreasewas concomitant with the reappearance of fine nodular networks, followed later on by the reconstruction of networks of larger caliber and the formation of secretion granules. Conclusions It is concluded that a block of the secretory pathway upstream of the Golgi compartment leads to the disappearance of Golgi networks. The small vesicles and tubules that accumulate during the block in sec18 cells and within minutes after the shift at 20°C in sec23 cells appear to fuse together to form new Golgi networks. Thus, the small vesicles would not fuse with a preexisting Golgi apparatus but would rather fuse together to produce new Golgi networks. Such networks appear as transitory structures continuously undergoing renewal. Anat. Rec. 251:256–264, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Background Disassembly of cytoplasmic microtubules by nocodazole in cultured mammalian cells leads to the disruption of the continuous ribbonlike Golgi apparatus and dispersal of the Golgi elements from their normal juxtanuclear location, close to the microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), toward the cell periphery. Clearing of the drug induces reassembly of the microtubules from the MTOC and reorganization of the Golgi elements into a continuous ribbonlike juxtanuclear structure. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Golgi apparatus does not form a continuous structure as in mammalian cells but instead constitutes independent units dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. It is the purpose of this article to investigate the role of microtubules in the structure and distribution of the Golgi elements in S. cerevisiae by studying the ultrastructure of cell organelles either in mutant cells deficient in beta-tubulin or in wild-type cells treated with the microtubule-depolymerizing drug nocodazole. Methods Two S. cerevisiae yeast strains were used in this study: a control wild-type strain, CUY226 (ade2-101, his3-delta 200, leu2-delta 1, lys2-801, ura3-52 Mat alpha), and a mutant strain, CUY66 (tub2-401, ade2-101, ura3-52, Mat alpha). Nocodazole was added to the wild-type cells cultivated at 30 degrees C, and cells were fixed 5 min, 20 min, and 60 min, respectively, after adding the drug to the culture. Both strains were fixed and examined 5 min, 20 min, and 60 min after shifting the cultures from the permissive temperature of 30 degrees C to the restrictive temperature of 14 degrees C. Cells were fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde, treated for 15 min in 1% sodium metaperiodate, postfixed in reduced osmium, and embedded in Epon. To visualize the three-dimensional configuration of cell organelles, stereopairs were prepared from sections stained with lead citrate and tilted at +/- 15 degrees from the 0 degree position of the goniometric stage of the electron microscope. Results In mutant cells shifted to restrictive temperature and wild-type cells treated with nocodazole, the main ultrastructural modification was a fragmentation of networks of membranous tubules, which probably correspond to the yeast Golgi apparatus. Secretion granules were still present in growing buds, and they were dispersed in the cytoplasm, which contained in addition numerous small vesicles in the 30-60-nm diameter range. Conclusions In normal cells, small vesicles may originate from the endoplasmic reticulum and fuse together to give rise to Golgi networks (Rambourg et al. 1994. Anat. Rec., 240:32-41). If this hypothesis is correct, the observations reported might indicate that intact microtubules orient the flow of small vesicles and favour their fusion into Golgi networks.

Background: In early descriptions of ultrastructural alter- ations of secretory (sec) mutants of the yeast Saccharomyces cereuisiae, two mutants, sec7 and secl4, were shown to produce cell structures, the so- called Berkeley bodies thought at first to correspond to Golgi structures. In sec7 mutants grown at restrictive temperature, secretion granules soon dis- appeared, whereas networks of Golgi tubules increased in size and trans- formed into stacks of seven to eight flattened elements. At these time inter- vals, structures resembling Berkeley bodies appeared to be extensions of the endoplasmic reticulum (Rambourg et al., 1993). It is the purpose of the present study to examine by electron microscopy S. cereuisiae secl4 mu- tants and to compare the modifications along their secretory pathway with those occurring in a homologous mutant of Yarrowia lipolytica. Methods: S. cereuisiae sec 14 mutant cells coming from exponentially growing cultures were examined either at 24°C or after shifting at 37°C for 0,2, 5, 10, 15,20, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min. Y. lipolytica mutant cells were first cultured in YNB in 5000 medium and then transferred for 0,6,8,12,20, and 24 hr, in a phosphate-buffered YPD medium, which allows wild cells to differentiate from yeast to mycelian form. In both cases, cells were fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde, treated for 15 min in 1% sodium metaperiodate, post- fixed in reduced osmium, and embedded in Epon. To visualize the three- dimensional configuration of cell organelles, stereopairs were prepared from sections stained with lead citrate and tilted at 2 15" from the 0" posi- tion of the goniometric stage of the electron microscope. Results: In S. cereuisiae mutant cells shifted for 2 min at the restrictive temperature, faintly stained networks of thin anastomosed tubules were located at close proximity and often continuous with faintly stained ER cisternae. More intensely stained tubular networks with nodular dilations having the size of secretion granules were dispersed throughout the cyto- plasm. Later on, the faintly stained ER elements and related tubular net- works decreased in number, whereas the intensely stained nodular tubular networks increased in frequency. The incidence of secretion granules also increased and were distributed at random throughout the cytoplasm. Wide- meshed, intensely stained fenestrated spheres were often encountered and increased in number, in parallel to the increase in the number of nodular tubular networks. At late time intervals, the fenestrated spheres decreased in number as they seemingly transformed into spherical bodies identical to vacuoles. In contrast to what occurred in S. cereuisiae secl4 mutant, the main ultrastructural modification observed in Y. lipolytica transferred to the YPD medium was the formation of deep plasma membrane invagina- tions. Conclusions: It appears that two functionally homologous PIPC transfer

Background: In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Golgi apparatus consists of discrete units distributed throughout the cytoplasm. When such units are examined in three dimensions, in relatively thick sections prepared for the electron microscope, they usually appear as small tubular networks with a stained material accumulating in dilations located at the junctions of membranous tubules. To see whether such tubular networks are observed in other yeast species, the three-dimensional structure of organelles in eight additional yeast strains, endowed with diverse biological properties, are examined. Methods: Yeast strains were grown at 24°C in YPD medium (2% Bactopeptone, 1% Bactoyeast extract, and 2% glucose). Cells that were examined by electron microscopy came from exponentially growing cultures grown in a shaking water bath and maintained at a OD 600 (optical density at 600 nm) of 0.5. Cells were fixed in a fixative containing 2% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer pH 7.4 and 0.8 M sorbitol. They were then treated for 15 min in 1% sodium metaperiodate and postfixed for 1 hr in potassium ferrocyanide-osmic acid. They were preembedded in agarose prior to dehydration and finally embedded in Epon. In these conditions, the preservation of cell organelles was improved and the cytoplasmic retraction from the cell wall was minimized. Photographs of sections tilted at ± 15° from the 0° position of the goniometric stage were used to prepare stereopairs from which the three-dimensional configuration of the organelles was visualized. Results: In all yeast strains, tubular networks appeared as separate elements or units dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. Each unit consisted of anastomosed membranous tubules. In some strains such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, or Saccharomyces pombe, such units appeared mainly as polygonal networks of intensely stained membranous tubules. Along these networks, distensions filled with stained material were similar in size to nearby secretory granules, suggesting that the latter formed by fragmentation of the tubular networks. In Hansenula polymorpha, Pichia pastoris, and Debaryomyces hansenii, networks of anastomosed tubules were closely superposed to each other and formed parallel arrays reminiscent of the stacks of Golgi saccules seen in mammalian cells. However, in contrast to what is usually found in the latter, the layers making up the parallel arrays in yeasts, were clearly continuous to each other. In other strains, i.e., Kluyveromyces lactis, Candida albicans, and Candida parapsilosis, the situation was intermediate and their cytoplasm contained only arrays of small size with two or at most three superposed layers of membranous tubules. Small vesicles in the 30–50 nm range were rarely encountered in most yeast strains. Conclusions: It is therefore concluded that tubular networks, presumably Golgi in nature, are present in all yeasts examined so far. Yet, in some strains, these tubular networks may be arranged in parallel arrays or stacks. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Background: The trans-Golgi network (TGN) is generally considered as a distinct and permanent structural compartment of the Golgi apparatus of various cell types. To verify this postulate we examined and compared the three-dimensional characteristics of the TGNs of 14 different mammalian cell types as presented in our various publications since 1979 when we initially described the trans-tubular network of Sertoli cells. Methods: In all these studies we used low and high voltage electron microscopes on thin or thick sections of tissues fixed with glutaraldehyde and postfixed with reduced osmium. The section were stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. Stereopairs, prepared from photographs of tilted specimens, permitted a direct observation of the three-dimensional structure of the various elements of the Golgi apparatus. Results: The TGNs are multilayered and extensive in cells which do not form large typical secretory granules (Sertoli cells, nonciliated cells of ductuli efferentes, spinal ganglion cells) but have an extensive lysosomal system. The TGN is absent in cells forming very large secretory granules (secretory cells of seminal vesicles and lactating mammary glands). The TGNs are small in cells producing small to medium-size secretory granules and/or appear as residual fragments on the trans aspect of the Golgi stacks (e.g., mucous cells of Brunner's gland, pancreatic acinar cells, etc.). In cells with multiple and extensive TGNs, a continuity of these tubular networks with the two or three transmost saccules of the stack is observed but there are seemingly no connections between the TGNs. Whenever the TGNs are present, they do not form a continuous structure along the Golgi ribbon. However, they do present, in all cases, configurations suggestive of desquamation and renewal. Conclusions: The structure of the TGN varies considerably from one cell type to another, being extensive in cells not showing typical secretory granules but having an extensive lysosomal system, while in secretory cells showing small or large secretory granules the TGN is either small or even entirely absent. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Background: Brefeldin A (BFA), when added to the medium of cultured mammalian cells, induces a reversible block of secretion and disrupts the Golgi apparatus whereas Golgi enzyme markers appear to redistribute into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It has been shown in addition that in mammalian cells, BFA would prevent the assembly of coatomer proteins (COP) onto membranes by inhibiting the GTP-dependent interaction of the ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) with such membranes. The purpose of the present study is to analyze, by stereoelectron microscopy, the structural modifications of Golgi elements and of the ER-Golgi relationship in a BFA-sensitive yeast mutant, S. cerevisiae erg6. Methods: S. cerevisiae erg6 cells were placed in a medium containing 100 μg/ml BFA dissolved in 1% alcohol and collected after exposures of 0.5, 1.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 70 min to the drug. Yeasts placed in a BFA-free medium but containing 1% alcohol served as controls. After fixation in 2% glutaraldehyde, the cells were postfixed in reduced osmium and embedded in Epon. Then 0.08–0.2 μm thick sections stained with lead citrate were examined with the electron microscope. Photographs of the thicker sections, tilted at ± 15° from the 0° position of the goniometric stage, were used to prepare stereopairs from which the three-dimensional configuration of the organelles was visualized. Since BFA is known to prevent the interaction of ARF with membranes, the phenotype of the arf1 mutant deficient in this protein was also examined for comparative purposes. Results: In control cells, as in wild-type strains, two types of Golgi elements were observed: small networks of fine tubules seen close and occasionally connected to ER cisternae and coarser tubular networks showing nodular distensions having a size comparable to that of secretion granules. The latter networks were considered as trans-Golgi elements and the former as cis-Golgi elements. Several networks of both types were distributed throughout the cytoplasm. At short time intervals (0.5–5 min) of BFA treatment, the trans-Golgi elements disappeared from the cytoplasm, while the ER-connected cis-Golgi elements developed and formed large spheroidal masses frequently showing concentrically arranged fine tubular networks. Such spheroidal, cage-like structures later disappeared, and after 30 min Golgi elements were no longer identifiable, while ER cisternae assumed pleomorphic configurations as the cells showed signs of degeneration. S. cerevisiae arf1 mutants presented a phenotype similar to that of BFA-treated S. cerevisiae erg6. Conclusions: It is therefore concluded that soon after exposure to BFA there is, in this sensitive yeast mutant, a transitory hypertrophy of the ER-connected cis-Golgi network presumably resulting from a block at the exit end of this compartment. At longer time intervals (i.e., after 30 min) the Golgi elements are no longer formed, and the cells present signs of cell degeneration. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Background: The exact structural relationships of the saccules, membranous tubules, and vesicles that compose the cis- and midcompartments of the Golgi cortex of rat spermatids was investigated to determine the relationship of these elements to each other. Methods: Tissues fixed with glutaraldehyde and buffered in sodium cacodylate were examined with the electron microscope. Electron micrographs, including stereopairs, were analyzed to determine the three-dimensional organization of the Golgi elements. Results: The deeper layer of the Golgi cortex was composed of stacks of saccules connected to each other either by saccules or membranous tubules. The peripheral region of the Golgi cortex, located between the cisside of the stacks and a network of overlying ER cisternae contained numerous membranous tubules and vesicles of two class sizes: 50–100 nm vesicles and microvesicles 5–10 nm in diameter. The tubules formed tight networks, known as cis-elements or cis-Golgi networks (CGN), which were strictly parallel and next to the first or cis-saccule of the stack. The cis-elements were continuous with more loosely arranged peripheral tubules which formed elaborate, intertwined and interconnected networks. These peripheral tubules closely approximated the overlying ER cisternae in areas often showing fuzz-coated finger-like projections. Occasionally such peripheral tubules were continuous with ER cisternae. The saccules forming the stacks were continuous with membranous tubules which not only connected saccules of adjacent stacks, but also saccules of the same stack. These tubules were also connected with the tight tubular networks forming the cis-elements and the broad networks formed by the peripheral membranous tubules. Vesicles (50–100 nm) and microvesicles (5–10 nm) frequently formed aggregates in the peripheral Golgi region next to areas of ER membrane free of fuzz-coated projections. The microvesicles, embedded in a denser cytoplasmic matrix, had a more or less distinct delimiting membrane suggestive of their disintegration in this juxta-ER location. The 50–100 nm vesicles that were seen at the periphery of the vesicular aggregates appeared to form mainly from the membranous tubules of the Golgi cortex. Conclusions: Thus the saccules and membranous tubules of the spermatid's Golgi cortex formed a single continuous membranous system connected to ER cisternae. The vesicles, seemingly arising from the membranous tubules, appear to follow a retrograde pathway and undergo dissolution next to ER cisternae. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

BACKGROUND The secretory protein transit between cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi elements is blocked when the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae sec21 mutant is shifted from the permissive (24 degrees C) to a non-permissive (37 degrees C) temperature, but 30-50 nm vesicles accumulate in the cytoplasm. At the semi-permissive temperature of 33 degrees C there is no complete block but rather a slowdown of the protein transport between ER and Golgi. The purpose of the present investigation is to analyze the structural expression of these events. METHODS S. cerevisiae sec21 mutants were maintained for 90 min at semi-restrictive (33 degrees C) or restrictive (37 degrees C) temperatures and then progressively returned to 24 degrees C. Following fixation in glutaraldehyde and a postfixation in potassium ferrocyanide reduced osmium, 0.08 to 0.2 microns thick sections were cut from Epon embedded yeasts. Using the thicker sections, stereopairs of electron microscope photographs were prepared and used to visualize the three-dimensional configuration of the organelles. RESULTS At permissive temperature, the Golgi elements appeared as isolated networks of membranous tubules dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. The diameter of these membranous tubules varied considerably from one Golgi element to another. Larger tubules showed at their intersections distensions with size and staining intensity comparable with that of the secretory granules seen at proximity of the Golgi networks or at the cell periphery. Small vesicles in the 30-50 nm size range were rarely if ever observed in cells grown at permissive temperature. Golgi networks and secretion granules were less conspicuous in mutant cells maintained at 33 degrees C and completely disappeared at 37 degrees C. In both cases, the main structural feature was the presence in the cytoplasm of numerous small vesicles and of short membranous tubules with a diameter identical to that of the small vesicles. As soon as 5 minutes after shifting mutants from 33 degrees C to 24 degrees C, the small vesicles disappeared from the cytoplasm, while secretory granules were actively produced in extensively developed Golgi network. When mutants were returned from 37 degrees C to 24 degrees C, the disappearance of small vesicles was more progressive and concomitant with the progressive reconstruction of Golgi networks. CONCLUSIONS It is thus postulated that, in the above mentioned conditions, the small vesicles of the sec21 mutant did not act as intermediate carriers between the endoplasmic reticulum and a pre-existing Golgi apparatus, but rather fused together to produce newly formed Golgi networks.

The three-dimensional configuration of the Golgi apparatus has been examined with the electron microscope in thick Golgi sections of Saccharomyces cerevisiae prepared from a wild-type strain and from sec7 mutants maintained for various periods of time at the nonpermissive temperature of 37 degrees C and then returned to the permissive temperature of 24 degrees C. Reduced osmium postfixation of glutaraldehyde fixed specimens stained intensely the content of Golgi elements and thus facilitated their three-dimensional characterization. In wild-type S. cerevisiae, the Golgi elements usually appeared as isolated networks of membranous tubules dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. Along such networks, distensions filled with stained material were similar in size to nearby secretory granules, suggesting that the latter formed by fragmentation of the Golgi elements. In sec7 mutants maintained at 37 degrees C in low (0.1%) glucose medium, secretion granules progressively decreased in number and soon disappeared. Concomitantly the networks of Golgi tubules increased in size and complexity, lost their distensions, and then transformed into flattened saccules forming stacks of up to seven or eight saccules that were similar to the Golgi stacks seen in mammalian cells. However in contrast to the latter, connections between the saccules were evident and Golgi-associated small vesicles were generally absent. Following return to the permissive temperature (24 degrees C), secretion granules reappeared, the Golgi stacks progressively decreased in size, and resumed their initial state of separated small tubular networks. Thus in sec7 mutant, grown at 37 degrees C in low glucose medium, segregation of secretory granules is blocked. As a result, Golgi membranes accumulate to form a continuous system of stacked and interconnected saccules.

Striated anchoring fibrils (SAF) are associated with the basement membrane underlying myoepithelial and acinar cells of mammary glands. Their proximal extremities are inserted in electron-dense areas of the lamina densa, the anchoring plaques seen facing the hemidesmosomes of both myoepithelial and acinar cells. In the case of myoepithelial cells, the hemidesmosomes show a thick cytoplasmic plaque applied to the basal plasma membrane in which cytoplasmic filaments are inserted. Facing this plaque but on the extracellular aspect and at a short distance of 5–10 nm, there is a thin layer of electron-dense nodular material called the subcell membrane plate, which is connected to the plasma membrane by short filamentous bridges. Between this subcell membrane plate and the anchoring plaque, there is an abundance of fine anchoring filaments crossing the lamina lucida. Such anchoring filaments are less abundant in the lamina lucida outside the hemidesmosomal areas. In the case of acinar cells, the cytoplasmic plaques of the hemidesmosomes are thin and the associated cytoplasmic filaments less conspicuous. No distinct subcell membrane plate is seen on the extracellular aspect of the plasma membrane facing the cytoplasmic plaque of the hemidesmosomes. However, in this area numerous anchoring filaments cross the lamina lucida between the plasma membrane and the SAF-anchoring plaque complex. The abundance, in these cells, of hemidesomomes and their association with SAF-anchoring plaque complexes seen in the basement membrane must constitute a strong attachment for both myoepithelial and acinar cells and bind them to the underlying collagen fibrils, thus preventing their detachment from the connective tissue during the contractions of myoepithelial cells during milk ejection. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The three-dimensional structure of the Golgi apparatus and its compartments in prolactin cells has been examined in lactating rats in which secretion of prolactin was suppressed by removing the litter or stimulated by allowing the pups to suckle again. As soon as 2 hr after removal of the litter, large irregular progranules and numerous large pale vesicles accumulated in the trans-Golgi area together with vesicular or tubular fragments. The cis-tubular network was no longer recognizable on the cis-face of the Golgi ribbon; the saccules of the midcompartment were partitined by narrow fissures and also became perforated in register by numerous fenestrations of various sizes and irregular contours. The concomitant appearance of numerous vesicles in the cavities thus formed as well as in the surrounding cytoplasm indicated that they probably arose by the progressive cavitation and fragmentation of saccules of the mid compartment. Such a process, which reached a maximum between 4 and 6 hr after removal of the litter from the mother, was no longer observed at 8 and 12 hr, at which time intervals the Golgi apparatus was reduced in size with no cis-tubular elements and progranules on its trans-aspect and few vesicles in its surroundings. When mothers, separated from their litters for a period of 12 hr, were returned to their pups for 20 min, the cis-tubular network reappeared on the cis-aspect of the Golgi stacks and presumably formed by fusion of vesicles and anastomosed tubules located next to the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, the structure of the midsaccules returned to the stimulated condition, and early progranules were again segregated within the trans-most saccules of the Golgi stack. Hence, the Golgi apparatus of prolactin cells was rapidly and deeply modified in the presence or absence of stimulation. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The mode of secretory granule formation in prolactin cells was analyzed in thin or thick sections of pituitary glands from non-lactating or lactating female as well as from male rats. In all these animals, the Golgi apparatus of prolacting cells consists of a continuous twisted ribbon-like structure that branches and anastomoses to form a hollow sphere located in the juxtanuclear area. The early signs of secretory granule formation are observed along the trans-aspect of the Golgi ribbon where progranules appear as focal distensions simultaneously occurring anywhere in the last trans thiamine pyrophosphatase (TPPase)-containing Golgi element. In the transmost Golgi saccule, such dilatations usually contain several nodular masses of electron opaque material which are separated from each other and from the saccular membrane by a less intensely stained material. While this transmost saccule becomes more fenestrated, its focal polynodular distensions seemingly yield polynodular tubular progranules which are initially closely apposed and usually parallel to the trans face of the Golgi ribbon. Subsequently, these progranules, which frequently show small membranous tubules or tubular networks attached to them, are seen some distance from the Golgi stacks and progressively transform into the more compact polymorphous granules characteristic of prolactin cells. These observations suggest that the polynodular tubular progranules arise by fragmentation of portions of the trans-Golgi elements rather than by fusion of small uninodular granules budding from the edges of a trans-Golgi saccule. Once the progranules have been liberated, the rest of the transmost Golgi element appears to break down into small residual networks, tubules, and vesicles. Thus, in prolactin cells as in other glandular cells, the whole transmost Golgi element would fragment during formation of prosecretory granules.

The perforatorium is the subacrosomal portion of the perinuclear theca that encapsulates the nucleus of spermatozoa. In the rat, the perforatorium is a curved pointed structure, which in cross section is triangular in outline over the apical half and beyond the tip of the nucleus. The perforatorium, composed of several proteins, appears as a distinct structural entity only at the very end of spermiogenesis. In this study, polyclonal antibodies prepared against the entire isolated perforatorial fraction and against the major 16 and 34 kDa perforatorial polypeptides were used to determine the distribution of perforatorial proteins in germinal cells at various steps of differentiation. Immunoperoxidase staining at the LM level and quantitative immunogold labeling at the EM level were used. The labeling patterns with all three antibody preparations were identical. The immunolabeling first appeared in early pachytene spermatocytes and increased progressively, with a statistically significant upward trend, in both the nuclei and cytoplasm of spermatocytes and spermatids until step 9 of spermiogenesis. Up to this step the labeling concentration was significantly higher over the nucleus than over the cytoplasm. During nuclear condensation in steps 9 and 12 spermatids, there was a progressive loss of all the labeling over the nucleus and a corresponding increase of labeling over the cytoplasm. During steps 16-18, the early signs of condensation of perforatorial proteins occurred next to the inner acrosomal membrane. Then during step 19 there was a sudden condensation of perforatorial proteins into a definitive perforatorium. Thus proteins destined to form this cytoskeletal structure reside in both the nucleus and cytoplasm of spermatocytes and spermatids until nuclear condensation of the latter. Thereafter, they are restricted to the spermatid's cytoplasm and finally condense around the elongated nucleus at the end of spermiogenesis.

Affinity purified antibodies prepared against proteins isolated from fibrous sheath (FS) and outer dense fibers (ODF) were utilized in an immunocytochemical study of spermatids at various steps of spermiogenesis. This study, using the immunogold technique, was performed on sections of Epon or Lowicryl embedded tissues examined with the electron microscope. In the case of FS antibodies there was a selective immunoreactivity of the FS itself from step 10 onwards, but no reactivity over the plasma membrane associated FS anlagen. In addition there was a diffuse immunoreaction over the cytoplasmic matrix from step 9 until step 18 of spermiogenesis but no reactivity over the various types of dense bodies (e.g., granulated bodies, reticulated body, etc.) seen in the cytoplasm of these spermatids. In the case of ODF antibodies the ODF were immunolabeled throughout their development from step 11 onward. In addition to a diffuse immunoreactivity of the cytoplasmic matrix of spermatids from step 9 until step 18 of spermiogenesis, there was an immunolabeling of "granulated bodies." These bodies appeared in relation to ER cisternae during steps 10-14, increased in number and size during steps 15-17 and decreased in number thereafter leaving only a few coarsely granulated bodies in the residual cytoplasm which detached from late step 19 spermatids. No other cytoplasmic structures were labeled with the ODF antibody-gold complexes. Thus the granulated bodies appeared to serve as a transitory storage site for some proteins destined to form ODF, a major cytoskeletal element of the tail of rat spermatozoa.

After 20-day-old rats are placed on a vitamin-A-deficient diet (VAD) for a period of 10 weeks, the seminiferous tubules are found to contain only Sertoli cells and a small number of spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Retinol administration to VAD rats reinitiates spermatogenesis, but a stage-synchronization of the seminiferous epithelium throughout the testis of these rats is observed. In order to determine which cell type is responsible for this synchronization, the germ cell population has been analyzed in whole mounts of seminiferous tubules dissected from the testes of rats submitted to the following treatments. Twenty-day-old rats received a VAD diet for 10 weeks and then were divided into three groups of six rats. In group 1, all animals were sacrificed immediately; in group 2, the rats were injected once with retinol and sacrificed 3 hr later; in group 3, the rats were injected once with retinol, placed on a retinol-containing diet for 7 days and 3 hr, and then sacrificed. Three rats from each group had one testis injected with 3H-thymidine 3 hr (groups 1 and 2) or 7 days and 3 hr (group 3) before sacrifice. Three normal adult rats (approximately 100 days old) served as controls. Labeled and unlabeled germinal cells were mapped and scored in isolated seminiferous tubules. In group 1, type A1 and type A0 spermatogonia as well as some preleptotene spermatocytes were present; type A2, A3, A4, In, and B spermatogonia were completely eliminated from the testis. Neither type A1 mitotic figures nor 3H-thymidine-labeled-type A1 nuclei were seen.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The structural elements of the secretory pathway in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were analyzed by 3D stereo-electron microscopy using relatively thick sections in which membranes were selectively impregnated. In a wild-type strain, tubular networks of various sizes and staining properties were distributed throughout the cytoplasm. As a rule, wide-meshed, lightly stained polygonal networks were connected to more or less fenestrated sheets of endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Some of these networks were continuous with more intensely stained networks and narrower meshes that displayed at their intersections nodular dilations that progressively increased in size and staining properties to reach those of secretion granules. Such networks presumably corresponded to Golgi elements. Indeed, stacked cisternae typical of the mammalian Golgi apparatus are rarely found in wild-type cells. However, if it is assumed that the Golgi apparatus plays a key role in the segregation and maturation of secretion granules, then tubular networks with nodular dilations should be equivalent to parts of this organelle. In correlation with the increase in size and density of the nodules there was a decrease in diameter and staining intensity of the interconnecting tubules. These results parallel observations on the formation of secretory granules in mammalian cells and suggest that the segregation of secretory material is concomitant with the progressive perforation and tubulization of previously unperforated sheets. When the sec21-3 thermosensitive mutant was examined at the nonpermissive temperature (37°C), the secretory pathway was blocked at exit from the ER, which started to accumulate as clusters of narrow, anastomosed, unperforated ribbon-like elements. When the block was released by shifting down to permissive temperature (24°C), tubular networks of various sizes and caliber, presumably Golgi in nature, formed as soon as 5 minutes after release of the block. At later time intervals, granules of various sizes and densities appeared to be released by rupture of these tubular networks or even to form at the edges of ER fenestrae. These observations support a dynamic maturation process in which the formation of secretion granules occurs by means of an oriented series of membrane transformations starting at the ER and culminating with the liberation of secretion granules from Golgi networks.

We have isolated a cDNA (ODF27), encoding the major 27 kDa protein of rat sperm outer dense fibers (ODF), by screening a testicular lambda-gt11 phage cDNA library with an affinity-purified anti-27 kDa ODF polyclonal antibody. A cyanogen bromide derived internal amino acid (a.a.) sequence of the 27 kDa ODF protein was identical to an internal region of the deduced a.a. sequence of this cDNA. The cDNA encodes a protein with a high proportion of a repetitive motif, Cys-Gly-Pro, at the carboxy-terminal end, reminiscent of the testis-specific Mst(3)CGP proteins of Drosophila melanogaster (Schafer et al., 1993. Mol Cell Biol 13:1708-1718). Nick translation probes of the ODF27 cDNA recognized two complementary mRNAs of 1.2 and 1.5 kb in the rat testis. Developmental Northern blot analysis revealed that these mRNAs are first transcribed in round spermatids. In situ hybridization confirmed the haploid expression of these transcripts and demonstrated that they are found in the cytoplasm of spermatids throughout most of the duration of spermiogenesis. They reach a peak in steps 8-10 of spermiogenesis at the time transcription ceases, remain at high levels from steps 11 to 15, and diminish in steps 16-18 at the time ODF protein synthesis and assembly are shown to be maximum. The translation of these transcripts, therefore, appears to be post-transcriptionally controlled. A literature and NCBl database search revealed that the nucleotide sequence of the 027 cDNA is homologous to the rat gene RT7 (Van Der Hoorn et al., 1990. Dev Biol 142:147-154) and to the rat testis-specific cDNA rts 5/1 (Burfeind and Hoyer-Fender, 1991. Dev Biol 148:195-204), which encodes a 27 kDa polypeptide.

The structural features of the Golgi apparatus of acinar cells of mammary glands were examined with the electron microscope in 3 groups of rats: (1) in lactating female animals at 8 days postpartum, which served as controls; (2) in female rats sacrificed at various intervals from 2 to 30 hours following separation from their 8-day old pups; and (3) in females separated from their 8-day-old pups for a period of 12 hours and returned to their litters for durations of 1, 2, 4, and 8 hours. In animals of group 2, the Golgi stacks remained identical to that of controls between 2 and 8 hours. At 12 hours and later, the Golgi stacks decreased progressively in size, but the number of elements composing the stacks remained similar to that of lactating females and all contained casein submicelles. At 24 and 30 hours, typical secretory granules containing casein micelles disappeared from the trans aspect of the stacks. The earliest and most striking changes observed in the Golgi apparatus of the rats of group 2 took place at 12 hours. At this time, the prosecretory and secretory granules decreased considerably in volume and lost most of their electron-lucent content. This indicated that the delivery of small molecules, i.e., lactose and H2O, to these structures was soon altered following arrest of the sucking stimulus. In animals of group 3, the size of prosecretory and secretory granules and the amount of their electron-lucent content reverted to normal at 4 hours. Thus the influx of lactose and H2O into these structures appears to be rapidly restored after returning the pups to their mothers. The decrease in size of the Golgi stacks noted at 12, 18, and 24 hours following arrest of lactation (group 2), was accompanied by an increase in number of small vesicles that formed clusters next to the Golgi stacks and in "wells." Thus in these regressing Golgi stacks, many of the associated small vesicles appear to arise by vesiculation of the saccules.

Lactating mammary glands fixed by perfusion with 5% glutaraldehyde subsequently were postfixed with potassium ferrocyanide reduced osmium or were treated with tannic acid. Stained thin sections were examined with the electron microscope and stereopairs were prepared. The distribution of casein submicelles was analyzed in the various components of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi stacks were composed of five or six elements, all of which contained casein submicelles 20 nm in diameter. The cis-tubular network or cis-element, as well as the underlying three or four midsaccules, showed these casein submicelles either attached to their membrane or free in the lumen. The trans-most element of the stacks formed distended prosecretory granules in which both isolated or clustered casein submicelles were suspended in an electron-lucent fluid. These micellar aggregates increased in size and became progressively more compact to form spherical dense bodies or casein micelles, in which the individual 20 nm particles could easily be resolved. Casein micelles were seen in secretory granules in addition to a wispy material of low density. The numerous small spherical vesicles (80 nm or larger) seen on the cis, lateral, or trans aspects of the stacks did not appear to contain free casein submicelles. This raises questions regarding the role of these vesicles in the transport of casein macromolecules through the Golgi stacks. It was noticeable that in this Golgi apparatus a trans-Golgi network was limited to a few small residual tubules free from casein submicelles. It thus appears that the greater part of the trans-most Golgi element gives rise to the large prosecretory granules. After leaving the Golgi region and prior to exocytosis, the secretory granules often fuse to form larger granules before exocytosis. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

At the apex of the epithelial principal cells of the seminal vesicle, there appears to be two types of mature secretory granules, i. e., large and small. Both types of secretory granules showed an eccentric electron-dense spherical body with one pole attached to the delimiting membrane. The remainder of the large granule surrounding the eccentric body showed a granulofilamentous texture, whereas that of the small granule was electron lucent. The formation of these two types of granules was traced back to the various elements of the Golgi stacks. In the case of the large granules, the earliest stage of segregation of the precursor of the eccentric dense body was observed in distensions of the cis-element. Within distensions of all subjacent saccules, the dense bodies continued to be present but progressively increased in size while remaining attached to the saccular membrane. Following separation from the trans-face of the stack, the large prosecretory granules continued to increase in size by fusing with each other. The very large prosecretory granules, as they migrated toward the cell apex to become mature secretory granules, reduced in size prior to exocytosis. The small granules formed exclusively on the trans-aspect of the Golgi stacks and did not appear to fuse with each other. Observations on the formation of the large prosecretory granules within the Golgi apparatus and of the eccentric body in particular, which may be taken as a marker of the saccular membrane, were suggestive of a cis-trans migration and renewal of Golgi saccules.

In order to analyse, at the electron microscope level, the three-dimensional configuration of the trans compartment of the Golgi apparatus rat dorsal root ganglia were treated to demonstrate cytidine monophosphatase (CMPase) activity. The localization of enzymatic activity in the Golgi apparatus varied according to cell types. In type A and C cells, CMPase was exclusively located in the transmost sacculotubular element, whereas in type B cells all the saccules of the stacks forming the Golgi ribbon and the trans-Golgi networks were impregnated. Numerous dense bodies seen at proximity were also CMPase positive. In 3 microns thick sections of type A cells examined at low magnification, the impregnated element was scattered throughout the cytoplasm and never formed a continuous structure. In type B cells, the strongly reactive trans-Golgi networks did not follow the entire length of the impregnated Golgi ribbon but were preferentially located in the concavity of its arched portions. At higher magnification and in all cell types some tubular portions of the trans-Golgi networks took the appearance of spheroidal cage-like structures, the CMPase positive anastomotic tubules forming the bars of the cage. Anastomotic tubules separated from the trans-Golgi networks formed fenestrated spheres, while nearby CMPase-reactive dense bodies exhibited a paler hilus. These observations were taken to indicate that in ganglion cells, some CMPase positive dense bodies, presumably lysosomes, formed by fragmentation of the trans-Golgi networks.

The initial segment of the epididymis of rats, fixed with glutaraldehyde, was postfixed with reduced osmium, a technique that clearly delineates the membranes of cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the various elements of the Golgi apparatus, or with tannic acid to enhance the coats of vesicles and ribosomes on ER cisternae. The material was also treated to demonstrate various phosphatase activities (NADPase, TPPase, CMPase, G-6-Pase) or impregnated with osmium tetroxide. In osmium-impregnated material, the Golgi apparatus of the epithelial principal cells of the initial segment appeared in the light microscope as a branching, anastomosing ribbon forming a large network in the supranuclear region. In the electron microscope, ER were of two types: the heavily granulated, flattened, rough ER seen in the infranuclear and juxtanuclear regions and the distended, tubular, sparsely granulated ER, showing only few ribosomes, seen interlaced with the Golgi ribbon in the supranuclear region and at the apical pole of the cell. Of particular interest in this cell was the fact that the sparsely granulated ER approximated the Golgi stack on both its cis- and trans-faces. On the cis-face of the Golgi stack, the sparsely granulated ER cisternae showed the usual finger- or bud-like protrusions directed toward the cis element of the Golgi stack and around which numerous small 80 nm vesicles or membranous tubules were clustered. The Golgi stack consisted of the following elements in a cis-trans axis: the cis osmiophilic element, a first saccule slightly dilated, saccules two to four (S2-S4), which were NADPase-positive, and saccules five to seven and the eight Golgi element, which were TPPase-positive. On the trans-aspect of the Golgi stacks, several (up to four) CMPase-positive trans-Golgi networks were observed often in close apposition to the sparsely granulated ER cisternae. One of the trans-Golgi networks showed a "peeling-off" configuration, i.e. part of it was closely apposed to the overlying Golgi element of the stack, whereas the remaining part was separated from the stack by a space occupied by a cisterna of sparsely granulated ER. The other trans-Golgi networks were completely separated from the stack and were often seen sandwiched between sparsely granulated ER cisternae. Thus, ER cisternae showed extensive areas of close apposition but no continuity with the trans-Golgi networks. Although the saccules of the Golgi stacks showed NADPase and/or TPPase activity, the trans-Golgi networks displayed CMPase activity, thus facilitating their identification from the closely associated unreactive sparsely granulated ER cisternae.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) activity of cytoplasmic components of spermatocytes and spermatids of the rat was examined by electron microscope cytochemistry using cerium chloride as a capture agent. G6Pase activity, a recognized ER-resident enzyme, was present in all ER cisternae of spermatocytes. In spermatids, while some ER cisternae were G6Pase-reactive, others were negative or only slightly reactive, indicating an unequal distribution of the enzymatic activity throughout the network of ER cisternae in these cells. In spermatocytes, the cis - and trans -elements of the stacks of Golgi saccules were slightly but significantly reactive for G6Pase. In the Golgi apparatus of spermatids, the cis -element, 4 or 5 underlying saccules, as well as one or two thick trans Golgi elements were G6Pase reactive. The G6Pase activity of the various Golgi elements, like that of the ER cisternae was not affected by the pH of the medium and was completely inhibited by Na-vanadate, a known G6Pase inhibitor. Sertoli and Leydig cells, submitted to the same cytochemical conditions, showed complete G6Pase reactivity of their ER; however in Sertoli cells, all Golgi components were consistently negative while in Leydig cells the cis - and trans -elements of the Golgi stacks were slightly reactive, as in spermatocytes. Thus, the G6Pase reactivity of Golgi elements, appeared variable from one cell type to another. The compact juxtanuclear Golgi apparatuses of spermatocytes and spermatids were both associated with numerous G6Pase reactive ER cisternae; some were present at their surface, others crossed their cortices between Golgi stacks and formed elaborate networks in their cores. Other ER cisternae, in turn were closely apposed to or intertwined with trans -elements of the Golgi stacks, a relationship raising the possibility of molecular exchanges at this pole of the stacks in germinal cells.

The formation of secretion granules has been studied in the Golgi apparatus of granular epithelial cells of frog urinary bladders maintained at room temperature or cooled at 4°C for various lengths of time. In control animals, the Golgi apparatus was composed of the following stacked elements: subjacent to the cis -rmelement mad up of anastomosed tubules, two elements in the mid -compartment consisted of flattened saccules interconnected by tubules. On the trans -face, two or three sacculo-tubular elements were slightly dilated by an electron dense granular material. In the trans -Golgi elements, this material was segregated into dilatations of various sizes and shapes which are continuous with flattened portions devoid of stained material. In the trans -Golgi region, free irregular progranules, seemingly formed by rupture of the trans -most Golgi elements. In granular cells examined after 4 h at 4°C, all Golgi compartments were affected by the low temperature. The cis -half portion of the Golgi apparatus consisted mainly of anastomosed membranous tubules and the cis -element was no longer recognizable. The trans -compartment was reduced to a few flattened saccules with progranules hardly visible on their trans -aspect. At later time intervals, there was a progressive reconstitution of the cis -zone while saccular elements started to pile up in the trans -compartment. At 24 h, the trans -compartment comprised six to eight saccular elements which showed irregular dilatations filled with granular material separated by large flattened portions. These various observations were interpreted as indicating that the trans -compartment was a dynamic structure undergoing continuous renewal.

Our results on the formation of the ODF and perforatorium are diagrammatically summarized in Figures 30 and 31. The developmental expression of proteins making up these two cytoskeletal elements differs in timing, duration and intracellular localization. The ODF proteins are synthesized exclusively during the latter part of spermiogenesis, well after transcriptional activity in the haploid germ cell nucleus has ended. This implies that these major integral proteins of the tail are translationally regulated and that mechanisms must exist for the storage and eventual release of the mRNAs encoding these proteins. The perforatorial proteins, on the other hand, begin to be synthesized during the meiotic prophase reaching a peak of production in early spermiogenesis just before the initiation of the condensation of the spermatid's nucleus, at which time RNA synthesis stops. Another major difference between ODF and perforatorial protein production is that there seems to be a coordinated activity between the synthesis and the assembly of the ODF proteins, whereas there appears to be an almost 25 day delay between the initial meiotic synthesis and final condensation of perforatorial proteins in the subacrosomal space at the end of spermiogenesis. As for the intracellular localization of ODF and perforatorial proteins both have unprecedented distributions. The ODF proteins appear to be concentrated in a particular type of granular body which is especially abundant in the elongated spermatid at the time of peak ODF assembly. The perforatorial proteins, on the other hand, appear to be concentrated in the nuclei of pachytene spermatocytes and round spermatids until their displacement into the cytoplasm during nuclear condensation. Both forms of localization suggest a storage role for these proteins uniquely adapted by the spermatid to regulate the assemblies of the respective cytoskeletal elements.

The rat perforatorium is the part of the perinuclear theca that underlies the acrosomic system. It appears to be composed of several polypeptides. The main objective of this study was to determine the distribution of seven of these perforatorial polypeptides in the head of the rat spermatozoon. For this purpose, polyclonal antibodies were affinity purified from these polypeptides and tested (1) for their distribution on electron-microscope sections of late spermatids and spermatozoa by immunogold labeling and (2) for their specificity on Western blots of denatured perforatorial polypeptides by immunoblotting. Imunoblotting showed that all seven of the prominent perforatorial polypeptides had epitopes in common. Immunogold labeling of spermatozoa showed that antibodies against the 13, 13.4, and 16 kDa polypeptides were restricted in their localization to the thicker apical portion of the perforatorium and to the inner zone of the ventral spur. However, antibodies against the 34, 43, 57, and 63 kDa polypeptides reacted with the entire perforatorium but, in addition, reacted with the inner part of the ventral spur and with a portion of the “outer periacrosomal layer” lying between the plasma membrane and the outer acrosomal membrane. These results suggest (1) that there are regional differences in protein composition of the perforatorium, of the outer periacrosomal layer, and of the postacrosomal dense lamina; and (2) that perforatorial polypeptides may not necessarily be restricted to the subacrosomal region, but may also compose portions of the outer periacrosomal layer and postacrosomal dense lamina. Based on both immunoblotting and immunocytochemical results, using an antiactin monoclonal antibody that recognizes all known isoforms of actin, actin was not detected in the perforatorium of step 19 spermatids or spermatozoa. Actin, however, together with the seven perforatorial polypeptides tested, was present in the subacrosomal space of elongating spermatids before the process of condensation of the perforatorium takes place.

Heads of spermatozoa were sonically separated from tails and treated in 1 N NaOH until the perforatoria were partially detached from the nucleus. Their complete detachment was then assured by repeatedly passing the suspension through a 22-gauge needle. The perforatoria were then separated from nuclei on sucrose gradients and the purity of the fraction was verified by electron microscopy. The isolated perforatoria were denatured and used to raise antibodies or run on polycrylamide gels. Such gels revealed many polypeptide bands, six of which were most prominent (Mr approximately 13,000, 13,400, 16,000, 33,000, 35,000, and 43,000). Of these, the 16,000 Mr polypeptide was major. Anti-perforatorium serum reacted with the perforatoria of fixed spermatozoa, with a substance found between the plasmalemma and the outer acrosomal membrane of the acrosomal head cap and with the inner component of the ventral spur, but not with the postacrosomal dense lamina. This observation indicated that the perforatorium and dense lamina, although structurally continuous to form the perinuclear theca, are biochemically distinct. On Western blots, the anti-perforatorium serum reacted with the prominent polypeptides of the perforatorium and cross-reacted with some less prominent polypeptides of the fibrous sheath (FS) and outer dense fibers (ODF), most notably with a 16,000 Mr polypeptide found in both. Likewise anti-FS or anti-ODF serum cross-reacted with some major and minor polypeptides of the perforatorium, again most notably with a major 16,000 Mr polypeptide. The immunocross-reactions observed on Western blots were confirmed by immunocytochemical methods applied to spermatozoa. These results demonstrate that the perforatorium is composed of several polypeptides, is immunologically distinct from the postacrosomal dense lamina, may be immunologically similar to a substance found between the plasmalemma and outer acrosomal membrane and to a substance found on the inner aspect of the ventral spur, has antigenic determinants in common with the FS and ODF, and may share a 16,000 Mr polypeptide with these two cytoskeletal structures of the flagellum.

Autophagosomes were observed frequently in electron microscope photographs of Leydig cells from normal adult rat testis. Their formation, evolution and fate were analyzed morphologically in preparations treated to show cytidine monophosphatase (CMPase) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase) activities and in animals sacrificed at various time intervals ranging from 5 min to 6 hrs after a single intratesticular injection of cationic ferritin. Analysis of the morphologic data led to the following interpretation and model. Preautophagosomal structures appeared as flattened, elongated membranous profiles. These expanded, took on a C-shape and fused at their edges to demarcate a small cytoplasmic territory containing normal-looking smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. Such early autophagosomes were thus delimited by two membranes separated by a narrow lumen. Following fusion of these elements with secondary lysosomes, the space between the two membranes increased in size, the inner membrane disintegrated and the enclosed organelles no longer could be identified. The late autophagosomes then reached the cell surface and appeared to exocytose their residual content. In contrast to secondary lysosomes and trans-Golgi elements, which were CMPase-positive, the preautophagosomal flattened membranous elements and early autophagosomes were CMPase-negative. The late autophagosomes on the contrary were CMPase-positive. While ER cisternae were G-6-Pase-positive, the pre-, early and late autophagosomal structures were unreactive for this enzyme. Cationic ferritin tracer experiments showed that only late autophagosomes became labeled with cationic ferritin following their fusion with secondary lysosomes into which the tracer had accumulated following its endocytosis from the cell surface.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Binding of 125I-transferrin (125I-Tf) to the plasma membrane of Sertoli cells and its endocytosis were analyzed by means of light- and electron-microscope quantitative radioautography. Five minutes after 125I-Tf was injected into the interstitial space of the testis, a strong labeling of the basal aspect of the seminiferous epithelium was observed in light-microscope radioautographs. Injection of the same dose of 125I-Tf plus a 200-fold excess of cold transferrin resulted in a marked diminution of the radioautographic reaction, indicating that the initial strong labeling with radiolabeled transferrin was specific. These results were consistent with the localization of immunoreactive fluorescence of transferrin receptor at the base of the seminiferous epithelium. In electron-microscope radioautographs of tubules collected at 5 min after injection, the membrane of Sertoli cells facing the basement membrane was well labeled with 125I-Tf. At 15 and 30 min, the plasma membrane was less intensely labeled, but the silver grains were then seen overlying multivesicular bodies with an electron-lucent matrix, identified as endosomes. This population of endosomes was always seen at a short distance from the basal membrane of Sertoli cells. At 90 min, no more labeling of the plasma membrane, endosomes, or any other cytoplasmic component was observed. Isolated seminiferous tubules and Sertoli cells labeled with 125I-Tf at 4 degrees C were rinsed and reincubated in a label-free medium at 37 degrees C for various periods of time from 5 to 90 min. A radioactive protein precipitated by trichloroacetic acid, presumably intact transferrin, was released from the tubules into the incubating medium; when measured, it was found to increase rapidly from 5 to 45 min and stabilize thereafter. These results suggest that transferrin was internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis, reached endosomes, and then was released to the extratubular space. When native ferritin (NF), a tracer for fluid-phase endocytosis, was infused within the lumen of seminiferous tubules and 125I-Tf was simultaneously injected into the interstitial space, both markers rapidly reached different populations of endosomes. Endosomes labeled with NF, scattered throughout the cytoplasm, evolved with time into dense multivesicular bodies and secondary lysosomes, whereas radiolabeled transferrin reached only the endosomes located in the basal cytoplasm of Sertoli cells. The latter thus appeared to be principally involved in the uptake and recycling of transferrin.

The morphogenesis of the outer dense fibers (ODF) in rat spermatids has been studied by electron microscopy, and the synthesis and incorporation of proteins into the ODF during this process have been followed by radioautography using /sup 3/H-proline and /sup 3/H-cystine as precursors for ODF proteins. In the first phase (step 8-14), nine very fine fibers termed anlagen of the ODF develop in association with the microtubule doublets. These first appear along the most proximal portion of the axoneme in step 8 of spermiogenesis; during steps 9-14 they gradually increased in length in a proximal-to-distal direction, being first observable along the forming midpiece and later along the principal piece as well. In the second phase (steps 15-16), the rudimentary fibers suddenly increase in diameter, with the most dramatic growth occurring in step 16, and assume a close resemblance to the mature ODF. This striking transformation, which appears to result from simultaneous deposition of electron-dense material along the length of anlagen of the ODF, coincides with a period of rapid incorporation of /sup 3/H-proline-and /sup 3/H-cystine-containing proteins, which become permanent structural components of the ODF. These proteins, which comprise the bulk of the ODF, are synthesized in the cytoplasm of spermatidsmore » during the acrosome and early maturation phases. In the final phase (steps 17-19) the fibers continue to enlarge very slowly, assuming their definitive form in step 19 of spermiogenesis. Thus formation of the ODF in the rat is a lengthy multistep procedure, requiring from step 8-19 of spermiogenesis and utilizing proteins synthesized throughout most of this period.« less

In normal adult rats some germ cells degenerate at several vulnerable steps of spermatogenesis. These are the type A spermatogonia, midpachytene spermatocytes, primary and secondary spermatocytes which degenerate during their respective maturation divisions and step 7 and 19 spermatitids. In the present study, these degenerating cells were examined under the electron microscope, and their frequency was determined in toluidine blue stained semithin sections of testes from normal, hypophysectomized (at 5.5 days after operation) and hypophysectomized rats injected with FSH and LH separately or in combination. With the exception of the step 19 spermatids, the degenerating germ cells underwent necrosis in vacuolated spaces delimited by Sertoli cells. In the case of the affected step 19 spermatids, an apical cytoplasmic process of the Sertoli cell initially ensheathed a long segment of their flagellum, and then each degeneration cell was drawn deep in the seminiferous epithelium where it was phagocytozed by the Sertoli cell. Soon after hypophysectomy the incidence of degenerating mid-pachytene spermatocytes, step 7 and 19 spermatids which are present in stages VII or VIII of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium, increased significantly. In contrast the number of degenerating primary or secondary spermatocytes during the meiotic divisions seen in stage XIV of the cycle or of any other germinal cell was not significantly modified. While the injection of FSH alone had no influence on the number of degenerating cells in hypophysectomized rats, injections of LH at the two doses administered (0.7 microng or 20 microng) reduced significantly the number of degenerating cells seen in stages VII-VIII of the cycle; combined injections of FSH and LH (20 microng) reduced the number of these degenerating cells to the normal low values. Thus it appeared that the mid-pachytene spermatocytes and the step 7 and 19 spermatids, all present in the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous epithelium in stages VII or VIII of the cycle, were more sensitive to the presence of absence of gonadotropic hormones than the other germ cells present in the seminiferous epithelium.

Glycoprotein synthesis in Sertoli cells was investigated in rats sacrificed at various intervals (10, 30 min; 1, 4, 8, 24 h) after a single intratesticular injection of [3H] fucose. Thin sections of glutaraldehyde-fixed testes were radioautographed and the relative concentration of the label over the various cytoplasmic components of the Sertoli cells was analyzed quantitatively from electron microscopic photographs. The analysis was performed at the various stages of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium grouped as follows: I-IV, V-VII, VIII-XI, XII-XIV. The incorporation of [3H] fucose into glycoproteins took place initially in the Golgi apparatus of the cells and the labeled glycoproteins later migrated to the lysosomes and plasma membrane. The corrected grain counts over the various cytoplasmic components of the Sertoli cell at various intervals after [3H] fucose injection, indicated that the synthesis of glycoproteins detected by radioautography after [3H] fucose injection was constant during the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. Furthermore, the rate of transfer of the labeled glycoproteins from the Golgi apparatus to the lysosomes and plasma membrane was also noncyclic.

Glutaraldehyde-fixed testes were stained "en bloc" with the Ur-Pb-Cu technique of Thiéry and Rambourg ('76) or post-fixed and stained with the osmium tetroxide-potassium ferrocyanide method of Karnovsky ('71). Thin or thick (up to 3 micron) sections were examined with the Philips (301 or 400) EM or the high voltage EM. Stereopairs were prepared with photographs of tilted specimens (+/- 7 degrees). At low magnification, in thick sections (0.5-3 micron) stained with Ur-Pb-Cu, the whole Golgi apparatus formed a single network of interconnected wavy ribbon or platelike structures extending from the juxtanuclear region toward the apex of the cell. At higher magnifications, with the two staining techniques, this Golgi network showed two distinct types of regions: the "saccular region" corresponding to the conventional stack of saccules and the "intersaccular connecting region" made up of anastomotic tubules which bridge adjacent stacks. In the saccurlar regions, there was, on the cis-face of the stack, a tight polygonal meshwork of anastomotic tubules (osmiophilic element). Underlying it there were three to seven closely apposed saccules perforated with pores of various diameters, and finally, on the trans-face, a network of tubules was usually connected to the last saccule of the stack, which seemed to peel off" from the pile. The intersaccular connecting regions showed proximal and distal zones with regard to the associated stacks. The proximal zone was made up of superimposed and parallel polygonal networks of membranous tubules which were continuous with corresponding saccules of the stack. In the distal zone they interdigitated, intertwined, anastomosed and bridged adjacent saccular regions; others turned at right angles and established connections with tubular extensions arising at various levels of the same stack. While cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum were contiguous with tubules or saccules located on the transface of the Golgi apparatus, a close association between the ER cisternae and the cis-face of the stacks was not usually observed.

In primates the membrane separating the seminiferous epithelium from the interstitial space is composed of one to three (monkey) or two to six layers (man) of myoid cells associated with one to two layers of fibrocyte-like adventitial cells. All these cells are separated from each other by irregular spaces filled with various connective tissue intercellular components. Subjacent to the elements of the seminiferous epithelium is a continuous, often redundant, basement membrane. A similar basement membrane-like material forms a layer next to and over small areas of the plasma membrane of myoid cells. Collagen fibrils grouped in bundles of various sizes are seen in all connective tissue layers but are particularly abundant in the space between the seminiferous epithelium and the innermost layer of myoid cells. Elastic fibrils demonstrated by the Verhoeff iron hematoxylin technique are also present. Composed of a homogeneous material, the elastic fibrils are short, irregular, branching entities with a diameter comparable to or smaller than that of collagen fibrils. In addition, an abundance of microfibrils with a diameter of 12-15 nm is present in the various connective tissue layers. These microfibrils have a densely stained cortex and a lightly stained core. When seen close to the myoid cells, bundles of micro fibrils appear to insert on well defined areas next to the plasma membrane. These areas commonly face the patches of electron-dense material observed on the inner aspect of the plasma membrane of the myoid cells and in which the actin filaments are inserted. Bundles of microfibrils often span the gap between myoid cells of the same layer as well as those of adjacent layers. Microfibrils are also closely related to the surface of elastic fibrils and are seen intertwining with collagen fibrils. Thus microfibrils appear to bridge and bind together adjacent myoid cells and anchor the surface of these cells to the bundles of elastic and collagen fibrils present in the intercellular spaces of the limiting membrane.

The endocytic activity taking place at the apex of Sertoli cells was analyzed by using various tracers to demonstrate fluid-phase and adsorptive endocytosis. Native ferritin and protein-gold complexes, used to demonstrate fluid-phase endocytosis, were internalized by Sertoli cells at all stages of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. At 5 min after injection, the tracers were found in the large spherical or C-shaped vesicles seen in the apical processes; at 15 and 30 min, the tracers accumulated in light multivesicular bodies, and at 60 min in dense multivesicular bodies and lysosomes. At later time intervals, an increasing number of lysosomes contained the tracers. Following injection of cationic ferritin or concanavalin A-ferritin, these tracers, used to demonstrate adsorptive endocytosis, were found to be found to the plasma membrane of Sertoli-cell apical processes but were not collected by the large cytoplasmic apical vesicles, multivesicular bodies, or lysosomes. As an exception, a few special multivesicular bodies seen in the large apical processes which encapsulate the heads of late spermatids at stage VII of the cycle contained these tracers. During stage VIII of the cycle, the residual bodies which detach from the mature spermatids are phagocytosed by Sertoli cells. Such residual bodies do not contain their own hydrolytic lysosomal enzymes. However, it was observed that the lysosomes which form as a result of the fluid-phase endocytic activity of the Sertoli cells fuse with the phagocytosed residual bodies and by means of their hydrolytic enzymes contribute to the rapid disintegration of these bodies. Thus, during stage VIII of the cycle, the Sertoli cells integrate two distinct processes, i.e., fluid-phase endocytosis and phagocytosis.

The cytoplasm of chloride cells found in the epithelium lining the gills of guppies (Lebistes reticulatus) contains, in addition to the Golgi apparatus and cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum, two distinct membranous components, the vesiculotubular and the tubular systems. While the latter is connected to the laterobasal plasma membrane, the former, made up of small vesicles and short membranous tubules, is seen mainly between the Golgi apparatus and the apical cavity which invaginates the apex of the cell. The role of these two systems in the transport of glycoproteins from the Golgi apparatus to the cell surface was investigated in fishes maintained in fresh and salt water, injected with 3H-fucose, and sacrificed at various intervals thereafter (10 and 30 min; 2.5, 8, 15.5, 24, and 48 hours). The distribution of the label was analyzed by quantitative radioautography in sections examined with the light and electron microscopes. The light microscopic data suggested that the label incorporated in the supranuclear region, where the Golgi apparatus is located, migrated toward the apical and the laterobasal regions of the chloride cells. The relative concentration of the tracer over the various components of the cytoplasm of these cells was calculated from data collected on electron microscope radioautographs at various intervals after 3H-fucose injection. The curves obtained supported the view that glycoproteins synthesized in the Golgi apparatus were transported to the apical surface via the vesiculotubular system, and to the laterobasal membrane via the tubular system.

Sertoli cell processes invaginating the cytoplasm of rat spermatids were investigated in thin or thick sections stained respectively with ferrocyanide-reduced osmium (Karnovsky, 1971) and the Ur-Pb-Cu metallic impregnation method (Thiéry and Rambourg, 1976). Two types of Sertoli cell processes were observed: Some, seen in steps 11-15 of spermiogenesis, were associated with a tight network of ER cisternae located within the spermatid cytoplasm subjacent to the plasma membrane facing the Seertoli cell process; others, seen from step 11 until the end of spermiogenesis, were not associated with such a spermatid subsurface ER network. Following their formation, the ER-associated Sertoli cell processes were cleaved into double-walled vesicles. Concomitantly, the enclosed Sertoli cell cytoplasm underwent autolysis followed by the dissolution of the Sertoli cell plasma membrane leaving within the spermatid cytoplasm many empty-looking vacuoles delimited only by the plasma membrane of the spermatid. Thereafter, i.e., in steps 15 and 16 of spermiogenesis, these vacuoles clustered, and with the collapse of the vacuoles they gave rise to a single compact mass of interlaced ER cisternae and small vacuoles. With the dissolution of ER cisternae, in step 18, this mass was finally dispersed. These observations suggested that the ER-associated Sertoli cell processes may constitute a pathway for the delivery of material from the Sertoli cells into spermatids. In contrast, the Sertoli cell processes not associated with a network of ER cisternae did not show cleavage or autolysis and appear to be involved mainly in holding the cytoplasm of the spermatid in place.

The appearance of the spermatid Golgi apparatus was studied, both in thin sections of rat testes fixed in glutaraldehyde and treated with either tannic acid or ferrocyanide-reduced osmium, and in relatively thick sections (0.25-0.5 μm) of glutaraldehyde fixed tissue impregnated with uranyl acetate followed by lead and copper citrate. With any one of these three procedures, the Golgi apparatus of young spermatids examined at the Golgi and cap phases appeared as a compact hemispherical mass whose base was located next to the developing acrosomic system. The cortical region of the hemisphere was composed mainly of several stacks of saccules. The central core or medullary region contained numerous vesicular and tubular membranous profiles. Numerous cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) were closely applied to the surface of the Golgi apparatus. In thin sections, the ER cisternae were separated from the stacks of saccules by small spherical or elongated membranous profiles. In thick sections, most of these elements formed a network of tubules, some of which being continuous with ER cisternae. Cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum near the cis-face of the Golgi stacks also branched and traversed the cortical region of the Golgi apparatus through gaps seen between the stacks of saccules to reach the central core region. Some of these were closely applied to the trans elements of Golgi stacks although never in continuity with them. Finally, ER cisternae were found located within the stacks themselves between Golgi saccules; here the membranes of the closely apposed cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi saccules remained separated by a space of about 12 nm. Thus, in the spermatid, the endoplasmic reticulum was closely related with all components of the Golgi apparatus.

The cytochemical distribution of two different acid phosphatases, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphatase (NADPase) and cytidine monophosphatase (CMPase), was analyzed within the Golgi apparatus, acrosomic system, and chromatoid body of early spermatids. Within the saccules composing the Golgi cortex, the phosphatases were localized in specific and nonoverlapping compartments: the cis-tubular network, or cis-element, and the first underlying saccule were unreactive for both enzymes, the following four to five saccules were reactive for NADPase, and the last three saccules were reactive for CMPase. Vesicles of various sizes and short membranous tubules, present near the edges of saccules and in the medulla of the Golgi apparatus, were NADPase- and/or CMPase-positive. The acrosomic system showed a weak but significant NADPase reactivity and a strong CMPase reactivity. The vesicles associated with the chromatoid body were reactive for NADPase and/or CMPase. The combined observations indicate that the two cytochemically distinct compartments of the Golgi cortex, the NADPase- and CMPase-positive saccules, independently contribute to the formation of the acrosomic system and the vesicular component of the chromatoid body.

The localization of concanavalin A (con A) binding sites has been determined at the electron-microscopic level in the six types of neurons (A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C) of rat dorsal root ganglia. In all ganglion cells, con A stained the plasma membrane, the nuclear envelope, the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and the matrix of some multivesicular bodies. In contrast, the con A reactivity of the Golgi apparatus varied according to cell type. In type B1 and B2 cells and possibly in type A3 cells, the lectin was exclusively located in three or four saccules on the cis side of the Golgi stacks, whereas the TPPase-positive saccules and the trans sacculotubular elements were unstained with con A. In type A1, A2, and C neurons, all Golgi saccules as well as the trans sacculotubular elements were stained with the lectin. These results suggest that different types of glycoproteins were produced in these two groups of neurons. In the type A1, A2, and C cells, the persistence of the lectin reactivity in the TTPase-positive saccules or sacculotubular elements on the trans side of the Golgi stacks suggests the presence of glycoproteins with oligosaccharide side chains rich in alpha-D-mannosyl residues in terminal positions. In contrast, the disappearance of the con A reactivity in equivalent elements of the Golgi stacks in type B1, B2, and A3 cells suggests the addition at this level of other sugar residues characteristic of complex oligosaccharide side chains. The majority of the vesicular elements associated with the Golgi apparatus, as well as lysosomes, were unstained with con A.

Ciliated cells of the ductuli efferentes show at their apex a discrete endocytic apparatus composed of small vesicles connected to or subjacent to the apical plasma membrane, small apical membranous tubules, and pale multivesicular bodies. Deeper in the cytoplasm, there are acid phosphatase-positive denser, multivesicular bodies and secondary lysosomes showing an electron-dense cortex and a crystalline, paler stained core. Cationic ferritin and concanavalin A-ferritin used to demonstrate adsorptive endocytosis, when injected into the rete testis, rapidly reached the lumen of the ductuli efferentes. At 1 min after injection, these tracers were seen bound to the apical plasma membrane of ciliated cells and within small endocytic vesicles and by 5 min in narrow apical tubules. At 15 and 30 min after injection, the tracers appeared in pale multivesicular bodies while at 1 hr they were found within dense multivesicular bodies. At 2 hr and longer time intervals these tracers accumulated within secondary lysosomes. Native ferritin, concanavalin A-ferritin in the presence of alpha-methyl-D-mannoside, and horseradish peroxidase or albumin-colloidal gold complexes were used to analyze fluid-phase endocytosis. At various intervals following their injection into the rete testis, these tracers presented a distribution identical in all respects to that described for cationic ferritin and concanavalin A-ferritin. In the present work, none of the above tracers were transported to the abluminal aspect of the ciliated cells. These cells, like the nonciliated epithelial cells of the ductuli efferentes are thus involved in adsorptive as well as in fluid-phase endocytosis.

The three-dimensional structure of the components of the Golgi apparatus was analyzed in plasma cells of rat duodenum. The spheroidal juxtanuclear Golgi apparatus was formed by a continuous ribbonlike structure composed of the following stacked elements. On the cis-face of the Golgi stack, there was a tubular membranous network referred to as the cis-element and/or a slightly dilated saccule perforated with small pores. The two or three subjacent saccules, which showed few pores, were slightly dilated and contained a fluffy granulofilamentous material. They were also perforated in register by cavities or wells containing 80-nm vesicles. The next one or two underlying elements were fenestrated saccules showing flattened portions as well as distended portions containing a homogeneous material denser than that seen in the overlying saccules. The last two or three elements of the stack showed a partially separated or "peeling off" configuration. These last elements consisted of prosecretory granules attached to flattened, empty-looking saccules showing buds at their surface; detached, more-or-less fenestrated, flattened saccules; and shrivelled residual trans-tubular networks. In the trans-region of the stack, in addition to numerous small vesicles, short membranous tubules, detached prosecretory granules, and denser fully formed secretion granules were also seen. These images were interpreted to indicate that secretory material present in the trans-saccules flows toward the dilated portions which become prosecretory granules. The trans-most elements seemingly peel off the stack to yield prosecretory granules and fragmenting trans-tubular networks.