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Eutrophication usually impacts biodiversity, species composition, and functioning of grassland communities. Whether such effects propagate to influence the stability of these community aspects is unknown. Using standardized experiments across 55 global grasslands, we quantified the effects of nutrient addition on five stability facets (i.e., temporal invariability and resistance during and recovery after dry and wet growing seasons) for three community aspects (i.e., aboveground biomass, community composition, and species richness). Nutrient addition reduced the temporal invariability and resistance of species richness and community composition, but not biomass, during dry and wet growing seasons. Temporal invariability and resistance during, but not recovery after, dry and wet growing seasons were strongly positively correlated in both ambient and eutrophic conditions. This indicates that maintaining and restoring the stability of plant communities requires increasing resistance rather than recovery. Harnessing the complexity of ecological stability provides new insights for grassland ecosystem sustainability in a changing world.

Life history strategies are fundamental to the ecology and evolution of organisms and are important for understanding extinction risk and responses to global change. Using global datasets and a multiple response modelling framework we show that trait-climate interactions are associated with life history strategies for a diverse range of plant species at the global scale. Our modelling framework informs our understanding of trade-offs and positive correlations between elements of life history after accounting for environmental context and evolutionary and trait-based constraints. Interactions between plant traits and climatic context were needed to explain variation in age at maturity, distribution of mortality across the lifespan and generation times of species. Mean age at maturity and the distribution of mortality across plants’ lifespan were under evolutionary constraints. These findings provide empirical support for the theoretical expectation that climatic context is key to understanding trait to life history relationships globally.

Biotic and abiotic factors interact with dominant plants—the locally most frequent or with the largest coverage—and nondominant plants differently, partially because dominant plants modify the environment where nondominant plants grow. For instance, if dominant plants compete strongly, they will deplete most resources, forcing nondominant plants into a narrower niche space. Conversely, if dominant plants are constrained by the environment, they might not exhaust available resources but instead may ameliorate environmental stressors that usually limit nondominants. Hence, the nature of interactions among nondominant species could be modified by dominant species. Furthermore, these differences could translate into a disparity in the phylogenetic relatedness among dominants compared to the relatedness among nondominants. By estimating phylogenetic dispersion in 78 grasslands across five continents, we found that dominant species were clustered (e.g., co‐dominant grasses), suggesting dominant species are likely organized by environmental filtering, and that nondominant species were either randomly assembled or overdispersed. Traits showed similar trends for those sites (, We found a prevalent disparity between the dominant and nondominant species (measured as the standardized effect size of the mean nearest taxonomic distance), with the former more clustered than the latter, suggesting a disparity in the mechanisms organizing both groups. We also found several clades more likely to have nondominant species than dominant species, measured as the probability of finding a species of a given clade among the third less abundant species in the sites where that clade occurred. Unexpectedly, many nondominant clades have a large number of species, mainly were comprised of nonwoody species, and often appeared in the phylogeny. Together, these findings suggest dominance and nondominance are conserved and that their differences have ecological consequences.

Globally, we are faced with a climate crisis that requires urgent transition to a low-carbon economy. Simultaneously, the biodiversity crisis demands equally urgent action to prevent further species loss and promote restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems. Climate action itself must prevent further pressures on biodiversity and options for synergistic gains for both climate and biodiversity change mitigation and adaptation need to be explored and implemented. Here, we review the key potential impacts of climate mitigation measures in energy and land-use on biodiversity, including the development of renewable energy such as offshore and onshore wind, solar, and bioenergy. We also assess the potential impacts of climate action driven afforestation and native habitat rehabilitation and restoration. We apply our findings to Ireland as a unique case-study as the government develops a coordinated response to climate and biodiversity change through declaration of a joint climate and biodiversity emergency and inclusion of biodiversity in key climate change legislation and the national Climate Action Plan. However, acknowledgement of these intertwined crises is only a first step; implementation of synergistic solutions requires careful planning. We demonstrate how synergy between climate and biodiversity action can be gained through explicit consideration of the effects of climate change mitigation strategies, such as energy infrastructure development and land-use change, on biodiversity. We identify several potential "win-win" strategies for both climate mitigation and biodiversity conservation. For Ireland, these include increasing offshore wind capacity, rehabilitating natural areas surrounding onshore wind turbines, and limiting the development of solar photovoltaics to the built environment. Ultimately, climate mitigation should be implemented in a "Right Action, Right Place" framework to maximise positive biodiversity benefits. This review provides one of the first examples of how national climate actions can be implemented in a biodiversity-conscious way to initiate discussion about synergistic solutions for both climate and biodiversity.

Phenotypic plasticity can mask population genetic differentiation, reducing the predictability of trait-environment relationships. In short-lived plants, reproductive traits may be more genetically determined due to their direct impact on fitness, whereas vegetative traits may show higher plasticity to buffer short-term perturbations. Combining a multi-treatment greenhouse experiment with global field observations for the short-lived Plantago lanceolata, we 1) disentangled the genetic and plastic responses of functional traits to a set of environmental drivers and 2) assessed the utility of trait-environment relationshisps inferred from observational data for predicting genetic differentiation. Reproductive traits showed distinct genetic differentiation that was highly predictable from observational data, but only when correcting traits for differences in their (labile) biomass component. Vegetative traits showed higher plasticity and contrasting genetic and plastic responses, leading to unpredictable trait patterns. Our study suggests that genetic differentiation may be inferred from observational data only for the traits most closely related with fitness.

Genetic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity jointly shape intraspecific trait variation, but their roles differ among traits. In short- lived plants, reproductive traits may be more genetically determined due to their impact on fitness, whereas vegetative traits may show higher plasticity to buffer short- term perturbations. Combining a multi- treatment greenhouse experiment with observational field data throughout the range of a widespread short- lived herb, Plantago lanceolata, we (1) disentangled genetic and plastic responses of functional traits to a set of environmental drivers and (2) assessed how genetic differentiation and plasticity shape observational trait– environment relationships. Reproductive traits showed distinct genetic differentiation that largely determined observational patterns, but only when correcting traits for differences in biomass. Vegetative traits showed higher plasticity and opposite genetic and plastic responses, masking the genetic component underlying field- observed trait variation. Our study suggests that genetic differentiation may be inferred from observational data only for the traits most closely related to fitness.

Droughts can strongly affect grassland productivity and biodiversity, but responses differ widely. Nutrient availability may be a critical factor explaining this variation, but is often ignored in analyses of drought responses. Here, we used a standardized nutrient addition experiment covering 10 European grasslands to test if full-factorial nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium addition affected plant community responses to inter-annual variation in drought stress and to the extreme summer drought of 2018 in Europe. We found that nutrient addition amplified detrimental drought effects on community aboveground biomass production. Drought effects also differed between functional groups, with a negative effect on graminoid but not forb biomass production. Our results imply that eutrophication in grasslands, which promotes dominance of drought-sensitive graminoids over forbs, amplifies detrimental drought effects. In terms of climate change adaptation, agricultural management would benefit from taking into account differential drought impacts on fertilized versus unfertilized grasslands, which differ in ecosystem services they provide to society.

AimNutrient enrichment is associated with plant invasions and biodiversity loss. Functional trait advantages may predict the ascendancy of invasive plants following nutrient enrichment but this is rarely tested. Here, we investigate (a) whether dominant native and non‐native plants differ in important morphological and physiological leaf traits, (b) how their traits respond to nutrient addition, and (c) whether responses are consistent across functional groups.LocationAustralia, Europe, North America and South Africa.Time period2007–2014.Major taxa studiedGraminoids and forbs.MethodsWe focused on two types of leaf traits connected to resource acquisition: morphological features relating to light‐foraging surfaces and investment in tissue (specific leaf area, SLA) and physiological features relating to internal leaf chemistry as the basis for producing and utilizing photosynthate. We measured these traits on 503 leaves from 151 dominant species across 27 grasslands on four continents. We used an identical nutrient addition treatment of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) at all sites. Sites represented a broad range of grasslands that varied widely in climatic and edaphic conditions.ResultsWe found evidence that non‐native graminoids invest in leaves with higher nutrient concentrations than native graminoids, particularly at sites where native and non‐native species both dominate. We found little evidence that native and non‐native forbs differed in the measured leaf traits. These results were consistent in natural soil fertility levels and nutrient‐enriched conditions, with dominant species responding similarly to nutrient addition regardless of whether they were native or non‐native.Main conclusionsOur work identifies the inherent physiological trait advantages that can be used to predict non‐native graminoid establishment, potentially because of higher efficiency at taking up crucial nutrients into their leaves. Most importantly, these inherent advantages are already present at natural soil fertility levels and are maintained following nutrient enrichment.

Information on individuals from all stages of life is crucial to explore their ecology, evolution and conservation biology. However, the life cycles of many species contain cryptic life stages that are difficult to detect and track over time and are therefore omitted from demographic models. One example is the dormant seed bank, an evolutionary bet-hedging mechanism that buffers plant populations in variable environments. To evaluate this methodological oversight, we conduct simulations to explore the effect of seed bank parameter uncertainties on demographic outputs such as the deterministic (λ1) and stochastic population growth rate (λS), and extinction probabilities of 12 plant species. We have used uninformed and informed priors for seed bank parameters based on literature estimates, and reconstructed published models in which the seed bank was excluded without justification. Trials on removing the seed stage from models (6 species) explored the worst-case scenario for ignoring the seed bank. Inclusion of a seed bank and demographic uncertainty in seed bank parameters have little impact on stable populations (λ1 ≈ 1) with high post-seedling survival. When populations deviate from stability or demonstrate temporal demographic variation, greater changes in λ1 and the range of possible growth rates caused by demographic uncertainty are observed. As expected, decreasing populations (λ1 < 1) benefit from the inclusion of a seed bank through increases in the growth rate and extinction times, whereas increasing populations (λ1 > 1) are slowed down. While germination estimates from the literature cannot accurately reflect those obtained in the field, they provide a starting point to assess the relative importance of a seed bank. The exclusion of the seed bank must be justified by confirming that dormancy is either non-existent or not important. Accounting for cryptic stages in demographic models will produce better informed management decisions for threatened or invasive species.

Animals exhibit an extraordinary diversity of life history strategies. These realised combinations of survival, development, and reproduction are predicted to be constrained by physiological limitations and trade-offs in resource allocation. However, our understanding of these patterns is restricted to a few taxonomic groups. Using demographic data from 121 species, ranging from humans to sponges, we test whether such trade-offs universally shape animal life history strategies. We show that, after accounting for body mass and phylogenetic relatedness, 71% of the variation in animal life history strategies can be explained by life history traits associated with both the fast-slow continuum and by a separate second axis defined by the distribution of age-specific mortality hazards and the spread of reproduction. While we found that life history strategies are associated with metabolic rate and ecological modes-of-life, surprisingly similar life history strategies can be found across the phylogenetic and physiological diversity of animals.The turquoise killifish, Nothobranchius furzeri, can complete its lifecycle in just 14 days1. In contrast, the Greenland shark only becomes sexual mature after 156 years2. Despite their differences, the evolution of both these life histories is underpinned by the same evolutionary principal of maximising fitness through differing rates of survival, development, and reproduction3. As these species demonstrate, different combinations of traits associated with fitness, known as life history traits4, can successfully maintain viable populations over evolutionary time. The range of variation in life history traits and how they combine into life history strategies across the animal Kingdom is vast. Hexactinellid sponges can live for millennia5 while Gastrotrichs can complete their life cycle within days6. Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) release thousands of eggs in a single reproductive event7, while Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) individuals are known to reproduce continuously for decades8. Understanding how variation in these traits combines into life history strategies, and in turn how these strategies relate to the range of forms, physiologies and ecologies found in the animal kingdom, is key to our understanding of questions ranging from the invasive potential of species9 to the evolution of senescence10. Despite the diversity of life history strategies, not all are possible. Darwinian demons, hypothetical organisms which live forever and reproduce at infinite rates, do not exist due to limitations in resources11. The structure of life history strategies also reflects the environmental and physical constraints they evolve under. For example, to attain larger adult sizes individuals typically allocate resources towards development at the expense of reproductive output4. There are many such trade-offs that shape life history strategies12. The most well-understood of these results is the fast-slow continuum4,13 where the allocation of resources between survival, development, and reproduction results in a continuum of strategies ranging from a combination of fast development, short lifespans, and high reproductive rates, to combinations of slow development, longer lifespans, and low reproductive rates2. Additional axes of variation beyond the fast-slow continuum have also been described13-16. These typically relate to various moments of reproduction such as its annual intensity, duration, and its spread across the life course14.Identifying these major axes of variation provides a framework which can aid in mapping how conservation management strategies17, degrees of invasiveness9 and diversity18 relate to different life history strategies. However, current patterns of animal life history strategies are either based on taxonomically restricted groups, typically Mammalia11 and Aves13,19, or do not account for the potential variation in life history traits that can be attributed to body size16. Hence our current understanding of patterns in life history strategies effectively misses the wider variation in life history traits observed across the animal kingdom. Here, we exploit the recent rapid expansion in taxonomic coverage of animal demographic data20 to incorporate age related measures of mortality and reproduction10, along with other life history traits (Figure 1), into a test of the universality of life history patterns from the level of populations to the scale of the animal evolutionary tree (Figure 2).

AimTo assess if and how species’ range size relates to range structure, if the observed geographic range properties can be retrieved from predicted maps based on species distribution modeling, and whether range properties are predictable from biogeophysical factors.LocationEuropeTime periodCurrentMajor taxa studied813 vascular plant species endemic to EuropeMethodsWe quantified the size and spatial structure of species’ geographic ranges and compared ranges currently occupied with those predicted by species distribution models (SDMs). SDMs were constructed using complete occurrence data from the Atlas Florae Europaeae and climatic, soil and topographic predictors. We used landscape metrics to characterize range size, range division and patch shape structure, and analysed the phylogenetic, geographic and ecological drivers of species’ range size and structure using phylogenetic generalized least squares (pGLS).ResultsRange structure metrics were mostly decoupled from species’ range size. We found large differences in range metrics between observed and predicted ranges, in particular for species with intermediate observed range size and occupied area, and species with low and high observed patch size distribution, geographic range filling, patch shape complexity and geographic range fractality. Elevation heterogeneity, proximity to continental coasts, Southerly or Easterly geographic range positions and narrow ecological niche breadth constrained species’ observed range size and range structure to different extents. The strength and direction of the relationships differed between observed and predicted ranges.Main conclusionsSeveral range structure metrics, in addition to range size, are needed to adequately describe and understand species’ ranges. Species’ range structure can be well explained by geophysical factors and species niche width, albeit not consistently for observed and predicted ranges. As range structure can have important ecological and evolutionary consequences, we highlight the need to develop better predictive models of range structure than provided by current SDMs, and we identify the kinds of species for which this is most necessary.

Environmental and conservation scientists are increasingly being asked to justify their work in terms of benefits to society. This article describes economic theory for conceptualizing the benefits from environmental research, and provides a framework for estimating those benefits. In particular we discuss the evaluation of environmental science that is intended to benefit society through informing policy decisions. The chain between environmental research and its benefits through policy change includes at least four links: the research itself, policy change, behavior change and environmental change. Each of these four stages presents challenges and entails time lags. If any link fails, the chain breaks. The standard economic model of supply and demand, which is used to quantify benefits from research into market goods, can be adapted for application to environmental goods. Improved conceptualization and measurement of benefits from environmental research would assist environmental scientists to: (1) select research topics that are likely to deliver large environmental benefits; (2) design their research in a way that will increase its relevance, usefulness and potential impact on policy and, ultimately, the environment; and (3) make the case for funding particular research proposals. It could assist research agencies or research funders to: prioritize proposed research; make a case for increased funding for environmental research; and identify obstacles to the translation of research into environmental impacts, allowing attention to be focused on addressing these bottlenecks.

Periphyton is increasingly used to assess the biological condition of lakes. The predominance of relatively shallow exposed waterbodies in Ireland implies that epilithic diatoms should have a prominent role as bioindicators for the WFD; but epilithic diatom ecology in these Irish systems is poorly described. We characterised spring and summer diatom populations in diverse periphyton communities in 91 Irish lake waterbodies. Six assemblage clusters of diatom species were identified, and variation in their assemblages was predominately associated with environmental gradients of acidity-alkalinity, total phosphorus, and true colour. Diatom composition differed amongst high status lakes in three a priori defined lake alkalinity groups commonly used as a diatom typology for lake classification. However, when waterbodies were evaluated with a lake trophic diatom index (LTDI) their distribution of ‘expected-values’ was equivalent. The LTDI was highly correlated with total phosphorus but also had similar responses in the three lake alkalinity types. These findings indicated that lake typology had a limited role for diatom classification with the LTDI in Ireland. Matched spring and summer sampling across wide environmental gradients allowed the role of seasonality to be investigated. Relatively few benthic diatoms had a significant seasonal indicator value suggesting that unbiased monitoring of the epilithon is possible during any month of the growing season in comparable temperate waterbodies. However, temporal variability was lower at low values of the LTDI and increased unpredictably on a lake by lake basis thereafter. Given that lake diatom classification has been validated we suggest that the approach could be developed and used for more targeted assessment objectives.

Land management practices directly impact on the occurrence and condition of natural capital stocks, which can be measured using species diversity and abundance metrics. Species identity and abundance drive ecosystem service supply, either through effects of local diversity and/or through the presence of service providing species. However, the influence of management practices on the provision of ecosystem services is not adequately understood. We grouped grassland plant species into six groups according to desirable attributes (palatability and nutritional value to livestock; medicinal or aromatic compounds; nectar production; pollen production; nitrogen fixation; and endemic and red listed species), which we recognise as ecosystem service ‘provider groups’, and tested the influence of three land management practices (abandonment of mowing, grazing, and mowing) on diversity and abundance within these groups in upland temperate grasslands of Transylvania (Romania). All three management practices favoured at least one provider group, but hay making in upland grasslands favoured more provider groups than abandonment of mowing or grazing. The effects of management on diversity and abundance within several provider groups diverged from the effects on overall species diversity and abundance. Management, through changes in species composition, favours certain provider groups, and hence ecosystem services, over others. The provider group approach is more useful than overall species diversity metrics for assessing the provision of ecosystem services from landscapes and can be used to inform the development of agri-environment schemes and conservation policies aimed at meeting priorities for ecosystem service provision.

Correlative species distribution models are based on the observed relationship between species’ occurrence and macroclimate or other environmental variables. In climates predicted less favourable populations are expected to decline, and in favourable climates they are expected to persist. However, little comparative empirical support exists for a relationship between predicted climate suitability and population performance. We found that the performance of 93 populations of 34 plant species worldwide – as measured by in situ population growth rate, its temporal variation and extinction risk – was not correlated with climate suitability. However, correlations of demographic processes underpinning population performance with climate suitability indicated both resistance and vulnerability pathways of population responses to climate: in less suitable climates, plants experienced greater retrogression (resistance pathway) and greater variability in some demographic rates (vulnerability pathway). While a range of demographic strategies occur within species’ climatic niches, demographic strategies are more constrained in climates predicted to be less suitable.

Significance We found that long-distance dispersal and repeated introductions by humans have shaped adaptive potential in a globally distributed invasive species. Some plant species, therefore, do not need strong demographic changes to overcome environmental constraints that exist in the native range; simply mixing genetic stock from multiple populations can provide an adaptive advantage. This work highlights the value of preventing future introduction events for problematic invasive species, even if the species already exists in an area., When plants establish outside their native range, their ability to adapt to the new environment is influenced by both demography and dispersal. However, the relative importance of these two factors is poorly understood. To quantify the influence of demography and dispersal on patterns of genetic diversity underlying adaptation, we used data from a globally distributed demographic research network comprising 35 native and 18 nonnative populations of Plantago lanceolata. Species-specific simulation experiments showed that dispersal would dilute demographic influences on genetic diversity at local scales. Populations in the native European range had strong spatial genetic structure associated with geographic distance and precipitation seasonality. In contrast, nonnative populations had weaker spatial genetic structure that was not associated with environmental gradients but with higher within-population genetic diversity. Our findings show that dispersal caused by repeated, long-distance, human-mediated introductions has allowed invasive plant populations to overcome environmental constraints on genetic diversity, even without strong demographic changes. The impact of invasive plants may, therefore, increase with repeated introductions, highlighting the need to constrain future introductions of species even if they already exist in an area.

Zoos contribute substantial resources to in situ conservation projects in natural habitats using revenue from visitor attendance, as well as other sources. We use a global dataset of over 450 zoos to develop a model of how zoo composition and socio-economic factors directly and indirectly influence visitor attendance and in situ project activity. We find that zoos with many animals, large animals, high species richness (particularly of mammals), and which are dissimilar to other zoos achieve higher numbers of visitors and contribute to more in situ conservation projects. However, the model strongly supports a trade-off between number of animals and body mass indicating that alternative composition strategies, such as having many small animals, may also be effective. The evidence-base presented here can be used to help guide collection planning processes and increase the in situ contributions from zoos, helping to reduce global biodiversity loss., Zoos contribute to conservation actions in the wild. Here, Mooney et al. use a global dataset to show that, while zoos with more and larger animals attract the most visitors and contribute the most to conservation projects, there are viable alternative strategies to maximise attendance and conservation activity.

Plant population responses are key to understanding the effects of threats such as climate change and invasions. However, we lack demographic data for most species, and the data we have are often geographically aggregated. We determined to what extent existing data can be extrapolated to predict population performance across larger sets of species and spatial areas. We used 550 matrix models, across 210 species, sourced from the COMPADRE Plant Matrix Database, to model how climate, geographic proximity and phylogeny predicted population performance. Models including only geographic proximity and phylogeny explained 5–40% of the variation in four key metrics of population performance. However, there was poor extrapolation between species and extrapolation was limited to geographic scales smaller than those at which landscape scale threats typically occur. Thus, demographic information should only be extrapolated with caution. Capturing demography at scales relevant to landscape level threats will require more geographically extensive sampling.\ud

A definitive list of invasive species traits remains elusive, perhaps due to inconsistent ways of identifying invasive species. Invasive species are typically identified using one or more of four demographic criteria (local abundance, geographic range, environmental range, spread rate), referred to here as the demographic dimensions of invasiveness. In 112 studies comparing invasive and non-invasive plant traits, all 15 combinations of the four demographic dimensions were used to identify invasive species; 22% of studies identified invasive species solely by high abundance, while 25% ignored abundance. We used demographic data of 340 alien herbs classified as invasive or non-invasive in Victoria, Australia, to test whether the demographic dimensions are independent and which dimensions influence invasive species listing in practice. Species' abundances, spread rates and range sizes were independent. Relative abundance best explained the invasiveness classification. However, invasive and non-invasive species each spanned the full range of each demographic dimension, indicating that no dimension clearly separates invasive from non-invasive species. Graminoids with longer minimum residence times were more frequently classified as invasive, as were forbs occurring near edges of native vegetation fragments. Synthesis. Conflating multiple forms of invasiveness, by not distinguishing invasive species that are identified using different demographic criteria, may obscure traits possessed by particular subsets of invasive species. Traits promoting high abundance likely differ from those enabling fast spread and broad ranges. Examining traits linked with the four demographic dimensions of invasiveness will highlight species at risk of becoming dominant, spreading quickly or occupying large ranges.

Summary Management of invasive populations is typically investigated case‐by‐case. Comparative approaches have been applied to single aspects of management, such as demography, with cost or efficacy rarely incorporated.We present an analysis of the ranks of management actions for 14 species in five countries that extends beyond the use of demography alone to include multiple metrics for ranking management actions, which integrate cost, efficacy and demography (cost‐effectiveness) and managers’ expert opinion of ranks. We use content analysis of manager surveys to assess the multiple criteria managers use to rank management strategies.Analysis of the matrix models for managed populations showed that all management actions led to reductions in population growth rate (λ), with a median 48% reduction in λ across all management units; however, only 66% of the actions led to declining populations (λ, A multidimensional view of the benefits and costs of management options provides a range of single and integrated metrics. These rankings, and the relationships between them, can be used to assess management actions for invasive plants. The integrated cost‐effectiveness approach goes well ‘beyond demography’ and provides additional information for managers; however, cost‐effectiveness needs to be augmented with information on off‐target effects and social impacts of management in order to provide greater benefits for on‐the‐ground management.

The increasing extent and intensity of agricultural land use has led to an increase in the volume of agrochemicals applied to the landscape, including those used to improve the nutritional quality of soils (fertilizers) as well as those used to control undesirable species in the agroecosystem (pesticides). Chemicals can disperse in the air and surface and ground water, leading to exposure of non-target organisms. Ruderal, disturbance-tolerant plants on which many flower-visiting insects rely are commonly exposed to these chemicals in agroecosystems. Our research questions were: 1) how does non-target exposure to agrochemicals affect plant growth? 2) what are the indirect effects of non-target exposure to agrochemicals on flower-visitation by insects? We designed a two year field experiment imitating field-realistic fertilizer run-off and non-target herbicide exposure scenarios to explore the impact of low concentrations of fertilizer and herbicide alone, and in combination, on communities of seven plant species, including six native perennials and one non-native annual commonly found in agricultural systems in Ireland (Cirsium vulgare, Epilobium hirsutum, Plantago lanceolata, Origanum vulgare, Filipendula ulmaria, Hypochaeris radicata, Phacelia tanacetifolia). We created field-realistic exposure scenarios by applying concentrations of mineral fertilizer similar to those detected in ground water, and glyphosate levels equivalent to 7.6 % of a standard field application, to the foliage and soil of the plots. We found low concentrations of fertilizer and herbicide affected plant growth: fertilised plants were taller when flowering, while plants exposed to herbicide flowered at shorter heights and produced shorter leaves. The size of the floral display had the largest effect on insect visitation, with larger floral displays significantly more likely to receive a visitor in a given sampling event. The size of the floral display also interacted significantly with the fertilizer treatment for both the abundance and species richness of floral visitors. Overall, our results suggest that there are direct and indirect effects of agrochemical exposure on plants in field margins, and that these effects change the interactions between ruderal plants and flower-visiting insects.

Conservation-motivated eradications may cause unexpected perverse effects, and these undesirable consequences can be difficult to predict due to the paucity of information on species interactions. A probabilistic qualitative approach, which does not require extensive model parameterization, is becoming increasingly accepted and applied to conservation scenarios when information is limited. However, recent work has criticized this approach on philosophical grounds and proposed an alternative non-probabilistic Boolean analysis method, which circumvents the philosophical difficulties. There is a need for exploring the ability of this novel approach for informing conservation decisions. To do so, we applied the first real-world test of the non-probabilistic Boolean approach using a case study of management of Felis catus (feral cat) and Rattus rattus (black rat) on Christmas Island. We also applied the probabilistic approach as a contrast. Our modeling results showed that the probabilistic approach generated ambiguous outcomes, making it impractical to draw management recommendations. In contrast, the non-probabilistic Boolean approach revealed interpretable rules governing species responses, suggesting that while cat management alone is a risky strategy, the risk of negative effects of cat management on native species can be reduced by the addition of rat management. Thus, given limited resources, in combination with cat management it is prudent to prioritize rat management efforts in the habitats of potentially impacted native species of high concern and value. We conclude that the Boolean approach can be very useful when little information is available to model an ecological system and that it provides a way of identifying the potential risks and benefits of management strategies, enabling better informed conservation decision-making in the face of limited knowledge.

Species’ movements affect their response to environmental change but movement knowledge is often highly uncertain. We now have well‐established methods to integrate movement knowledge into conservation practice but still lack a framework to deal with uncertainty in movement knowledge for environmental decisions. We provide a framework that distinguishes two dimensions of species’ movement that are heavily influenced by uncertainty: knowledge about movement and relevance of movement to environmental decisions. Management decisions can be informed by their position in this knowledge‐relevance space. We then outline a framework to support decisions around (1) increasing understanding of the relevance of movement knowledge, (2) increasing robustness of decisions to uncertainties and (3) improving knowledge on species’ movement. Our decision‐support framework provides guidance for managing movement‐related uncertainty in systematic conservation planning, agri‐environment schemes, habitat restoration and international biodiversity policy. It caters to different resource levels (time and funding) so that species’ movement knowledge can be more effectively integrated into environmental decisions.

The introduction and success of non-native species are both a consequence and a cause of rapid global change. Humans have created novel ecosystems through environmental modification and mass movements of organisms around the planet. It has been argued that species biogeographic origin cannot explain or predict ecological impacts and the origin of a species should not influence ecosystem management. This rejection of 'origin' is overly simplistic. Origin effects can arise through biased sampling of the types of species transported, the environmental and evolutionary context of their source environments and the communities and environments to which they are introduced. Differences in co-evolutionary histories between source and recipient environments, and adaptation of introduced species to modified environmental conditions, can also shape origin effects. The high rates and long distances of human-mediated dispersal have increased the sizes of regional species pools. In addition, human transported, non-native species can change the function of recipient ecosystems through changes to community composition. We outline how origin effects can cascade through to ecological impact at population, community and ecosystem levels. Synthesis. Non-native species can have predictable and preventable effects on recipient communities. We identify multiple sources of origin effects and describe the ecological and evolutionary pathways through which origin effects lead to impacts. This functional understanding of origin effects must include human actions. However, species origin should not, on its own, be used as a shortcut for management decisions; origin effects should instead feed into a process whereby ecologists work together with managers, policymakers and broader society to guide decisions on how to respond to the effects of non-native species. Non-native species can have predictable and preventable effects on recipient communities. We identify multiple sources of origin effects and describe the ecological and evolutionary pathways through which origin effects lead to impacts. This functional understanding of origin effects must include human actions. However, species origin should not, on its own, be used as a shortcut for management decisions; origin effects should instead feed into a process whereby ecologists work together with managers, policymakers and broader society to guide decisions on how to respond to the effects of non-native species. Journal of Ecology

1. Introduced plants may initially experience enemy release, but some of those interactions may be reinstated through biological control. These cases provide opportunities to explore the dynamics of broken and remade consumer-resource interactions.

1. Invasive weeds are a major cause of biodiversity loss and economic damage world-wide. There is often a limited understanding of the biology of emerging invasive species, but delay in action may result in escalating costs of control, reduced economic returns from management actions and decreased feasibility of management. Therefore, spread models that inform and facilitate on-ground control of invasions are needed. 2. We developed a spatially explicit, individual-based spread model that can be applied to both data-poor and data-rich situations to model future spread and inform effective management of the invasion. The model is developed using a minimum of two mapped distributions for the target species at different times, together with habitat suitability variables and basic population data. We present a novel method for internally calibrating the reproduction and dispersal distance parameters. We use a sensitivity analysis to identify variables that should be prioritized in future research to increase robustness of model predictions. 3. We apply the model to two case studies, gamba grass and para grass, to provide management advice on emerging weed priorities in northern Australia. For both species, we find that the current extent of invasion in our study regions is expected to double in the next 10 years in the absence of management actions. The predicted future distribution identifies priority areas for eradication, control and containment to reduce the predicted increase in infestation. 4. The model was built for managers and policymakers in northern Australia working on species where expert knowledge and environmental data are often lacking, but is flexible and can be easily adapted for other situations, for example where good data are available. The model provides predicted probability of occurrence over a user-specified, typically short-term, time horizon. This output can be used to direct surveillance and management actions to areas that have the highest likelihood of rapid invasion and spread. Directing efforts to these areas provides the greatest likelihood of management success and maximizes the return on investment in management response.

Biodiversity is declining in many local communities while also becoming increasingly homogenized across space. Experimentsshow that local plant species loss reduces ecosystem functioning and services, but the role of spatial homogenization of communitycomposition and the potential interaction between diversity at different scales in maintaining ecosystem functioningremains unclear, especially when many functions are considered (ecosystem multifunctionality). We present an analysis ofeight ecosystem functions measured in 65 grasslands worldwide. We find that more diverse grasslands?those with both species-rich local communities (α-diversity) and large compositional differences among localities (β-diversity)?had higher levelsof multifunctionality. Moreover, α- and β-diversity synergistically affected multifunctionality, with higher levels of diversity at one scale amplifying the contribution to ecological functions at the other scale. The identity of species influencing ecosystem functioning differed among functions and across local communities, explaining why more diverse grasslands maintained greater functionality when more functions and localities were considered. These results were robust to variation in environmental drivers. Our findings reveal that plant diversity, at both local and landscape scales, contributes to the maintenance of multiple ecosystem services provided by grasslands. Preserving ecosystem functioning therefore requires conservation of biodiversity both within and among ecological communities. Fil: Hautier, Yann. University of Utrecht; Países Bajos Fil: Isbell, Forest. University of Minnesota; Estados Unidos Fil: Borer, Elizabeth T.. University of Minnesota; Estados Unidos Fil: Seabloom, Eric W.. University of Minnesota; Estados Unidos Fil: Harpole, Stanley. Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg; Alemania Fil: Lind, Eric M.. University of Minnesota; Estados Unidos Fil: MacDougall, Andrew. University of Guelph; Canadá Fil: Stevens, Carly. Lancaster University, ; Reino Unido Fil: Adler, Peter. Utah State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Alberti, Juan. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras; Argentina Fil: Bakker, Jonathan D. University of Washington, ; Estados Unidos Fil: Brudvig, Lars A. Michigan State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Buckley, Yvonne M. Trinity College Dublin; Irlanda Fil: Cadotte, Marc. University of Toronto Scarborough,; Canadá Fil: Caldeira, María C. University of Lisbon; Portugal Fil: Chaneton, Enrique Jose. Universidad de Buenos Aires; Argentina Fil: Chu, Chengjin. Sun Yat-sen University; China Fil: Daleo, Pedro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras; Argentina Fil: Dickman, Christopher R. The University of Sydney; Australia Fil: Dwyer, John M. The University of Queensland; Australia Fil: Eskelinen, Anu. University of Oulu; Finlandia Fil: Fay, Philip. USDA-ARS, Grassland Soil and Water Lab; Estados Unidos Fil: Firn, Jennifer. Queensland University of Technology; Australia Fil: Hagenah, Nicole. University of KwaZulu-Natal; Sudáfrica Fil: Hillebrand, Helmut. University Oldenburg; Alemania Fil: Iribarne, Oscar Osvaldo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras; Argentina Fil: Kirkman, Kevin P.. University of KwaZulu-Natal; Sudáfrica Fil: Knops, Johannes M. H. University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Estados Unidos Fil: La Pierre, Kimberly J. Smithsonian Environmental Research Center; Estados Unidos Fil: McCulley, Rebecca L. University of Kentucky; Estados Unidos Fil: Morgan, John W.. La Trobe University; Australia Fil: Pärtel, Meelis. University of Tartu; Estonia Fil: Pascual, Jesus Maria. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras; Argentina Fil: Price, Jodi N. Charles Sturt University; Australia Fil: Prober, Suzanne M. CSIRO Land and Water; Australia Fil: Risch, Anita C. Swiss Federal Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape Research; Suiza Fil: Sankaran, Mahesh. National Centre for Biological Sciences; India Fil: Schuetz, Martin. Swiss Federal Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape Research; Suiza Fil: Standish, Rachel J. Murdoch University; Australia Fil: Virtanen, Risto. University of Oulu; Finlandia Fil: Wardle, Glenda M. The University of Sydney; Australia Fil: Yahdjian, María Laura. UBA; Argentina Fil: Hector, Andy. University of Oxford; Reino Unido

The identification of patterns in life-history strategies across the tree of life is essential to our prediction of population persistence, extinction, and diversification. Plants exhibit a wide range of patterns of longevity, growth, and reproduction, but the general determinants of this enormous variation in life history are poorly understood. We use demographic data from 418 plant species in the wild, from annual herbs to supercentennial trees, to examine how growth form, habitat, and phylogenetic relationships structure plant life histories and to develop a framework to predict population performance. We show that 55% of the variation in plant life-history strategies is adequately characterized using two independent axes: the fast-slow continuum, including fast-growing, short-lived plant species at one end and slow-growing, long-lived species at the other, and a reproductive strategy axis, with highly reproductive, iteroparous species at one extreme and poorly reproductive, semelparous plants with frequent shrinkage at the other. Our findings remain consistent across major habitats and are minimally affected by plant growth form and phylogenetic ancestry, suggesting that the relative independence of the fast-slow and reproduction strategy axes is general in the plant kingdom. Our findings have similarities with how life-history strategies are structured in mammals, birds, and reptiles. The position of plant species populations in the 2D space produced by both axes predicts their rate of recovery from disturbances and population growth rate. This life-history framework may complement trait-based frameworks on leaf and wood economics; together these frameworks may allow prediction of responses of plants to anthropogenic disturbances and changing environments.

Microcosm experiments show that post-invasion evolution of residents and invaders means invasive species effects are even harder to predict than previously thought.

Species introductions have the potential to affect the functionality and stability of ecological communities, but because little is known about how introduced species form novel interactions, these impacts are difficult to predict. We quantified the impacts of species introductions on species interaction networks using five different model scenarios of how a novel species might form plant–pollinator interactions. The network structure was based on experimental manipulations on a community of plants and pollinators and shows that the community was more diverse, ordered, and compartmentalized, but less complex when an invasive plant generalist was present. Our models of species introductions reliably predicted several aspects of novel network structure in the field study. We found that introduced species that become incorporated into the community as generalists (both in the number and frequency of their interactions) have a much larger impact on the structure of plant–pollinator communities than introduced species that integrate into the community with few interactions. Average degree is strongly affected by the number of interactions the novel species forms and whether it competes for interactions, whereas connectance is affected by whether the novel species competes for interactions or adds new interaction partners. The number and size of compartments in the network change only when the novel species adds new interaction partners, while modularity and nestedness respond most to the number of interactions formed by the novel species. We provide a new approach for understanding the impacts of introduced and invasive species on plant–pollinator communities and demonstrate that it is critical to evaluate multiple structural characters simultaneously, as large changes in the fundamental structure of the community may be disguised.

Predictive models relating ecological assemblages to environmental conditions are widely used in environmental impact assessment and biomonitoring. Such models are often parameterized using comprehensive ecological sampling and taxonomic identification efforts. Limited resources mean that expensive sampling and analytical procedures should be planned to maximize information gain and minimize unnecessary expense. However, there has been little consideration of cost-effectiveness in parameterizing predictive models using ecological assemblages and no explicit consideration of cost-effectiveness in balancing investment in the crucial aspects of sample size and taxonomic resolution. Using lacustrine diatom (Bacillariophyceae) assemblages from four large-scale (c. 77 000-1·3 million km2) data sets containing between 207 and 493 lakes, we address the following questions: (1) how does taxonomic resolution affect information content; (2) how does sample size affect information content for different taxonomic resolutions; and (3) what are the most cost-effective strategies for constructing environmental assessment models using diatom assemblages across a range of budgets? We use weighted averaging regression models for pH, phosphorus, salinity and lake depth and realistic data collection costs to examine the relationship between cost and model information content (R2 and root mean squared error of prediction). For diatom-based models, finer taxonomic resolutions almost always provide more cost-effective information content than collecting more samples, with (morpho)species being the most appropriate taxonomic resolution for nearly all budget scenarios. Information content exhibits an asymptotic relationship with sample size and budget, with greatest information gain during initial sample size increases, and little gain beyond c. 100 samples. Smaller sample sizes can also achieve surprising predictive power in some cases, suggesting low-cost regional models may be achievable. However, caution is necessary in such an approach, because spatial dependencies in predictions may be missed and analogues with predicted assemblages may be poor. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the utility of explicitly considering cost estimates to determine optimal sampling effort and taxonomic resolution for ecological assemblage models. For large, regional biomonitoring programmes, cost-effective sampling could save millions of dollars. Our framework for determining optimal trade-offs in ecological assemblage models is easily adaptable to other taxa and analytical techniques used in biomonitoring and environmental assessment.

Dispersal is a fundamental species characteristic that should directly affect both rates of gene flow among spatially distributed populations and opportunities for speciation. Yet no single trait associated with dispersal has been demonstrated to affect both micro- and macroevolutionary patterns of diversity across a diverse biological assemblage. Here, we examine patterns of genetic differentiation and species richness in reef fishes, an assemblage of over 7,000 species comprising approximately one-third of the extant bony fishes and over one-tenth of living vertebrates. In reef fishes, dispersal occurs primarily during a planktonic larval stage. There are two major reproductive and parental investment syndromes among reef fishes, and the differences between them have implications for dispersal: (1) benthic guarding fishes lay negatively buoyant eggs, typically guarded by the male parent, and from these eggs hatch large, strongly swimming larvae; in contrast, (2) pelagic spawning fishes release small floating eggs directly into the water column, which drift unprotected before small weakly swimming larvae hatch. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we show that benthic guarders have significantly greater population structure than pelagic spawners and additionally that taxonomic families of benthic guarders are more species rich than families of pelagic spawners. Our findings provide a compelling case for the continuity between micro- and macroevolutionary processes of biological diversification and underscore the importance of dispersal-related traits in influencing the mode and tempo of evolution.

International audience; The management of introduced species that are both invasive and commercially valuable is contentious. While such species provide substantial economic benefits to some, they pose considerable costs to others due to negative impacts on ecosystems. We propose a decision framework to help balance conflicting objectives and support the management of commercially valuable invasive species. We illustrate our framework using the buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare syn. Cenchrus ciliaris L.) invasion in Australia. In rangelands worldwide, buffet grass is amongst a suite of commercially valuable invasive species, highly valued by some graziers as a pasture species but widely unpopular among those concerned with the threat it poses for native biodiversity. The framework comprises four components. First we develop a state and transition model to represent the invasion dynamics of buffel grass and the effect of management actions. Second we construct utility functions to represent the relative values of buffel grass cover in terms of production and biodiversity utilities (indicative of grazier's and conservationist's relative 'happiness' regarding buffel grass cover). We draw on expert and empirical data for the construction of the model and utility functions. Third, we present management strategies that minimize losses in production and biodiversity utilities in the absence of budget constraints. We use stochastic dynamic programming and multi-criteria decision analysis which explicitly account for trade-offs between production and biodiversity conservation concerns. Finally, we conduct a sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of assumptions of the model and utility functions. Management complexity arises from biodiversity-production trade-off situations in which the desirable state of buffel grass cover and effective actions to achieve this state depend on the utility functions. Management solutions were particularly sensitive to the shape of the utility functions for biodiversity. Solutions were less sensitive to uncertainty surrounding the effectiveness of management actions. We found in most biodiversity-production tradeoff situations a compromise solution led to management for an intermediate level (>0-50%) of buffel grass cover. However, when maximal values for both biodiversity and production are high, it may be more practical to manage for one value rather than find a compromise solution where concessions from both sides are high. Our decision framework does not attempt to optimize economic outcomes but provides a guide for formulating trade-offs between opposing views, something that is relevant to the management of any natural resource management problem where there are conflicting objectives.

The Encyonopsis microcephala-complex occurs in oligo-mesotrophic freshwaters and is often abundant in the periphyton of low nutrient lakes of high conservation value. It is globally distributed and increasing in apparent diversity with the discovery of additional species. To better differentiate this taxonomic aggregate, we re-examined the original type material of E. alpina, E. angusta and E. tavirana with light (LM) and scanning electron (SEM) microscopy. We investigated the morphology, ultrastructure and ecology of Encyonopsis populations from Ireland, which included previously unreported taxa and morphodemes of E. krammeri, E. neerlandica and E. subminuta. The apparently cosmopolitan E. microcephala was not found in collections from Ireland but two new species were described and compared to others in the complex. Encyonopsis carraensis sp. nov. was associated with a marl-precipitating community in low nutrient lakes, while Encyonopsis hibernica sp. nov. occurred in more productive waterbodies. Several Encyonopsis species had environmental optima near the oligo-mesotrophic boundary characteristic of the microcephala-complex. However, the niches of others were distributed along a wider gradient of water quality. Therefore, when Encyonopsis populations are prevalent in epilithic communities, the use of a more refined taxonomy is recommended for lake ecological assessment.

Globally, modification of landscapes for agriculture has had a strong influence on the distribution and abundance of biota. In particular, woodland-dependent birds are under threat across agricultural landscapes in Britain, North America and Australia, with their decline and extirpation attributed to the loss and fragmentation of habitat. Other native species have become over-abundant in response to anthropogenic landscape change and have strong interactive effects on avian assemblage structure. In eastern Australia, the hyper-aggressive noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) often dominates woodlands in agricultural landscapes through interspecific competition, resulting in declines of species richness of woodland-dependent birds. We aimed to determine the relative influence and importance of interspecific competition, in situ habitat structure and landscape structure for woodland-dependent bird species at the landscape level. We recorded species-specific landscape incidence of woodland-dependent birds in 24 agricultural-woodland mosaics (25 km2) in southern Queensland, Australia. We selected extensively cleared landscapes (10–23 % woodland cover) where fragmentation effects are expected to be greatest. We applied generalised linear models and hierarchical partitioning to quantify the relative importance of the landscape-level incidence of the noisy miner, mistletoe abundance, shrub cover, woodland extent, woodland subdivision and land-use intensity for the incidence of 46 species of woodland birds at the landscape-scale. The landscape-level incidence of the noisy miner was the most important explanatory variable across the assemblage. Both in situ habitat structure and landscape structure were of secondary importance to interspecific aggression, although previous research suggests that the increasing incidence of the noisy miner in fragmented agricultural landscapes is itself a consequence of anthropogenic changes to landscape structure. Species’ responses to fragmentation varied from positive to negative, but complex habitat structure had a consistently positive effect, suggesting in situ restoration of degraded habitats could be a conservation priority. Landscape wide conservation of woodland-dependent bird populations in agricultural landscapes may be more effective if direct management of noisy miner populations is employed, given the strong negative influence of this species on the incidence of woodland-dependent birds among landscapes.