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Research and application have used human-AI teaming (HAT) as a new paradigm to develop AI systems. HAT recognizes that AI will function as a teammate instead of simply a tool in collaboration with humans. Effective human-AI teams need to be capable of taking advantage of the unique abilities of both humans and AI while overcoming the known challenges and limitations of each member, augmenting human capabilities, and raising joint performance beyond that of either entity. The National AI Research and Strategic Plan 2023 update has recognized that research programs focusing primarily on the independent performance of AI systems generally fail to consider the functionality that AI must provide within the context of dynamic, adaptive, and collaborative teams and calls for further research on human-AI teaming and collaboration. However, there has been debate about whether AI can work as a teammate with humans. The primary concern is that adopting the "teaming" paradigm contradicts the human-centered AI (HCAI) approach, resulting in humans losing control of AI systems. This article further analyzes the HAT paradigm and the debates. Specifically, we elaborate on our proposed conceptual framework of human-AI joint cognitive systems (HAIJCS) and apply it to represent HAT under the HCAI umbrella. We believe that HAIJCS may help adopt HAI while enabling HCAI. The implications and future work for HAIJCS are also discussed. Insights: AI has led to the emergence of a new form of human-machine relationship: human-AI teaming (HAT), a paradigmatic shift in human-AI systems; We must follow a human-centered AI (HCAI) approach when applying HAT as a new design paradigm; We propose a conceptual framework of human-AI joint cognitive systems (HAIJCS) to represent and implement HAT for developing effective human-AI teaming, 8

Visual working memory (WM) plays a pivotal role in integrating fragments into meaningful units, but no study has addressed how visual WM integration takes place in children. The current study examined whether WM integration emerges once preschoolers master Gestalt cue and can retain two representations in WM (automatic integration hypothesis), or still needs time to mature (maturation-of-integration hypothesis). Four experiments (N = 168, 81 females, 4- to 6-year-olds, Chinese, in Hangzhou, China, from 2016.10 to 2021.11) were conducted. Although 4-year-olds can retain two objects in WM and benefit from Gestalt cues in simultaneous display (Cohen's ds gt;1.00), they failed when memory arrays were presented sequentially. Meanwhile, 5- and 6-year-olds consistently demonstrated WM integration ability (all Cohen's ds gt;0.69), supporting the maturation-of-integration hypothesis.

Working memory (WM) has a limited capacity; however, this limitation can be mitigated by selecting individual items from the set currently held in WM for prioritization. The selection mechanism underlying this prioritization ability is referred to as the focus of attention (FOA) in WM. Although impressive progress has been achieved in recent years, a fundamental question remains unclear: Do perception and WM share one FOA? In the current study, we investigated the hypothesis that only a perceptual task tapping object-based attention can divert the FOA in WM. We adopted a retro-cue WM paradigm and inserted a perceptual task after the offset of the cue. Critically, we manipulated the type of attention (object-based attention in Experiments 1-3, feature-based attention in Experiment 4, and spatial attention in Experiment 5) consumed by the perceptual task. We found that participants were able to prioritize a retro-cued representation in WM, and the retro-cue benefit on memory accuracy was intact regardless of the perceptual task. Critically, the retro-cue benefit on the response time of WM task was significantly reduced only after an object-based attention perceptual task (Experiments 1, 2, 3a, and 3b), while remaining constant after a feature-based attention (Experiment 4) or spatial attention (Experiment 5) perceptual task. These results suggest that WM and perception share an object-based FOA, and an object-based attention perceptual task can divert the FOA in WM. Meanwhile, the current study further confirms that sustained attention is not necessary for selective maintenance in WM. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Working memory (WM) has been a major focus of cognitive science and neuroscience for the past 50 years. While most WM research has centered on the mechanisms of objects, there has been a lack of investigation into the cognitive and neural mechanisms of events, which are the building blocks of our experience. Employing confirmatory factor analysis and resting-state and task fMRI, our study demonstrated for the first time that events have an independent storage space within WM, known as the event cache, with distinct neural correlates compared to object storage in WM. The cerebellar network was found to be the most essential network for event cache, with the left cerebellum Crus I being particularly involved in encoding and maintaining events. Our findings shed critical light on the neuropsychological mechanism of WM by revealing event cache as an independent sub-component of WM and encourage the reconsideration of theoretical models for WM.

Researchers have explored the influence of visual working memory (VWM) load on visual perception in the past decade. One of their key findings is that a high VWM load leads to reduced visual detection sensitivity to incoming visual stimuli. However, recent studies imply that persistent sensory processing continues after the memory array is offset. It is possible that the impaired visual detection is due to the sensory load of the residual sensory processing of the memory array (sensory load account) rather than the working memory load of the VWM task (VWM load account). We performed four experiments to examine the impacts on visual detection. Experiment 1 manipulated the retention time of the memory array while keeping the VWM load constant, revealing reduced visual detection along with retention time. Experiments 2 and 3 manipulated the VWM load while maintaining a constant sensory load, and visual detection was not affected. Experiment 4 affirmed that the findings in Experiments 1-3 were reliable. Together, the results of the current study suggest that the residual sensory load, rather than the VWM load of the VWM task, impairs visual detection. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Recent studies have examined the role of attention in retaining bound representations in working memory (WM) and found that object-based attention plays a pivotal role. However, no study has investigated whether maintaining bound representations with more features in WM requires extra object-based attention. We investigated this by examining whether a secondary task consuming object-based attention was more disruptive to the maintenance of bindings in WM when more features were stored per object. We instructed participants to memorize three bound representations in a WM task while manipulating the number of features (two vs. three features) contained in each representation. Moreover, we manipulated whether a secondary task consuming object-based attention was interpolated into the maintenance phase of WM. If extra object-based attention was required after the addition of an extra feature in the bound representation, the secondary task would result in a greater disruption of the three- rather than two-featured binding. In two experiments, we found that the added secondary task significantly impaired the binding performance, but the performance of the two- and three-featured bindings was disrupted to the same extent. These results suggest that the presence of more features in a bound representation in WM does not require extra object-based attention.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have shown impaired performance in canonical and nonsocial working memory (WM). However, no study has investigated social WM and its early development. Using biological motion stimuli, our study assessed the development of social and nonsocial WM capacity among children with or without ASD across the age span between 4 and 6 (N = 150). While typically developing (TD) children show a rapid development from age 5 to 6, children with ASD showed a delayed development for both social and nonsocial WM capacity, reaching a significant group difference at age 6. Furthermore, we found a negative correlation between social (but not nonsocial) WM capacity and the severity of autistic symptoms among children with ASD. In contrast, there is a positive correlation between both types of WM capacity and intelligence among TD children but not among children with ASD. Our findings thus indicate that individuals with ASD miss the rapid development of WM capacity in early childhood and, particularly, their delayed social WM development might contribute to core symptoms that critically depend on social information processing.

Retaining social interactions in working memory (WM) for further social activities is vital for a successful social life. Researchers have noted a social chunking phenomenon in WM: WM involuntarily uses the social interaction cues embedded in the individual actions and chunks them as one unit. Our study is the first to examine whether the social chunking in WM is an automatic process, by asking whether social chunking of agent actions in WM is resource-demanding, a key hallmark of automaticity. We achieved this by probing whether retaining agent interactions in WM as a chunk required more attention than retaining actions without interaction. We employed a WM change-detection task with actions containing social interaction cues as memory stimuli, and required participants only memorizing individual actions. As domain-general attention and object-based attention are suggested playing a key role in retaining chunks in WM, a secondary task was inserted in the WM maintenance phase to consume these two types of attention. We reestablished the fact that the social chunking in WM required no voluntary control (Experiments 1 and 2). Critically, we demonstrated substantial evidence that social chunking in WM did not require extra domain-general attention (Experiment 1) or object-based attention (Experiment 2). These findings imply that the social chunking of agent actions in WM is not resource-demanding, supporting an automatic view of social chunking in WM.

Working memory (WM) is essential for cognition, but the underlying neural mechanisms remain elusive. From a hierarchical processing perspective, this paper proposed and tested a hypothesis that a domain-general network at the top of the WM hierarchy can interact with distinct domain-preferential intermediate circuits to support WM. Employing a novel N-back task, we first identified the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG), middle temporal area (MT), and postcentral gyrus (PoCG) as intermediate regions for biological motion and shape motion processing, respectively. Using further psychophysiological interaction analyses, we delineated a frontal–parietal network (FPN) as the domain-general network. These results were further verified and extended by a delayed match to sample (DMS) task. Although the WM load-dependent and stimulus-free activations during the DMS delay phase confirm the role of FPN as a domain-general network to maintain information, the stimulus-dependent activations within this network during the DMS encoding phase suggest its involvement in the final stage of the hierarchical processing chains. In contrast, the load-dependent activations of intermediate regions in the N-back task highlight their further roles beyond perception in WM tasks. These results provide empirical evidence for a hierarchical processing model of WM and may have significant implications for WM training.

Neuropathic pain is a refractory condition that involves de novo protein synthesis in the nociceptive pathway. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a master regulator of protein translation; however, mechanisms underlying its role in neuropathic pain remain elusive. Using spared nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain model, we found that mTOR is preferentially activated in large-diameter dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and spinal microglia. However, selective ablation of mTOR in DRG neurons, rather than microglia, alleviated neuropathic pain. We show that injury- induced mTOR activation promoted transcriptional induction of NPY likely via signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation. NPY further acted primarily on Y2 receptors (Y2R) to enhance nociceptor excitability. Peripheral replenishment of NPY reversed pain alleviation upon mTOR removal, whereas Y2R antagonists prevented pain restoration. Our findings reveal an unexpected link between mTOR and NPY in promoting nociceptor sensitization and neuropathic pain, through NPY/Y2R signaling-mediated intra-ganglionic transmission.

Visual working memory (VWM) is responsible for the temporal retention and manipulation of visual information. It has been suggested that VWM employs an object-based encoding (OBE) manner to extract highly discriminable information from visual perception: Whenever one feature dimension of the objects is selected for entry into VWM, the other task-irrelevant highly discriminable dimension is also extracted into VWM involuntarily. However, the task-irrelevant feature in OBE studies might reflect a high capacity fragile VWM (FVWM) trace that stores maskable sensory representations. To directly compare the VWM storage hypothesis and the FVWM storage hypothesis, we used a unique characteristic of FVWM that the representations in FVWM could be erased by backward masks presented at the original locations of the memory array. We required participants to memorise the orientations of three coloured bars while ignoring their colours, and presented backward masks during the VWM maintenance interval. In four experiments, we consistently observed that the OBE occurs regardless of the presentation of the backward masks, except when even the task-relevant features in VWM were significantly interrupted by immediate backward masks, suggesting that the task-irrelevant features of objects are stored in VWM rather than in FVWM.

Maintaining an appropriate level of trust in automated driving (AD) is critical to safe driving. However, few studies have explored factors affecting trust in AD in general, and no study, as far as is known, has directly investigated whether driver personality influences driver trust in an AD system. The current study investigates the relation between driver personality and driver trust in AD, focusing on Level 2 AD. Participants were required to perform a period of AD in a driving simulator, during which their gaze and driving behavior were recorded, as well as their subjective trust scores after driving. In three distinct measures, a significant correlation between Openness and driver trust in the AD system is found: participants with higher Openness traits tend to have less trust in the AD system. No significant correlations between driver trust in AD and other personality traits are found. The findings suggest that driver personality has an impact on driver trust in AD. Theoretical and practical implications of this finding are discussed.

We make use of discrete yet meaningful events to orient ourselves to the dynamic environment. Among these events, biological motion, referring to the movements of animate entities, is one of the most biologically salient. We usually encounter biological motions of multiple human beings taking place simultaneously at distinct locations. How we encode biological motions into visual working memory (VWM) to form a coherent experience of the external world and guide our social behaviour remains unclear. This study for the first time addressed the VWM encoding mechanism of biological motions and their corresponding locations. We tested an event-based encoding hypothesis for biological motion and location: When one element of an event is required to be memorised, the irrelevant element of an event will also be extracted into VWM. We presented participants with three biological motions at different locations and required them to memorise only the biological motions or their locations while ignoring the other dimension. We examined the event-based encoding by probing a distracting effect: If the event-based encoding took place, the change of irrelevant dimension in the probe would lead to a significant distraction and impair the performance of detecting target dimension. We found significant distracting effects, which lasted for 3 s but vanished at 6 s, regardless of the target dimension (biological motions vs. locations, Experiment 1) and the exposure time of memory array (1 s vs. 3 s, Experiment 2). These results together support an event-based encoding mechanism during VWM encoding of biological motions and their corresponding locations.

It has been suggested that biological motion has a storage buffer independent of that of basic visual information in working memory. However, as coherent biological motion requires binding informat...

Over the last decade, seemingly conflicting results were obtained regarding the question of whether features of an object are stored separately, or bound together, in visual working memory. Many of these studies are based on an implicit assumption about a default, or fixed, mode of working memory storage. In contrast, here we asked whether the anticipated memory probes used in a given experiment might determine the format in which information is maintained in working memory, consistent with its task-oriented function. In order to test this flexible maintenance hypothesis, we recorded EEG while subjects performed a delayed-match-to-sample task with different requirements and load. In Experiment 1, by contrasting conditions with and without the requirement of maintaining bound features, we found significant differences in EEG signals recorded in central-parietal channels while controlling for differences in visual stimulation. Such difference was confirmed by multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA). Moreover, behavior results, topographical distributions and cross-contrast MVPA decoding jointly suggested that this effect is not the same as task load effect. These results were confirmed in Experiment 2 with an independent group of subjects with the same paradigm, providing reliable evidence that the format of object maintenance in visual working memory could be flexibly shaped by the current task.

Over the last decade, researchers have explored the influence of visual working-memory (WM) load on selective attention in general, by focusing on the modulation of visual WM load on distractor processing in perception. However, there were three distinct hypotheses (perceptual-load hypothesis, resolution hypothesis, and domain-specific hypothesis) with different predictions. While the perceptual-load hypothesis suggests that visual WM capacity load serves as a type of perceptual load, the latter two hypotheses consider visual WM capacity load acting as a type of central executive load, with a constraint that the domain-specific hypothesis claimed that only a content overlap existed between WM load and the perceptual task. By adding a flanker task into the maintenance phase of visual WM, here we attempted to understand the influence of visual WM load on distractor processing. We systematically manipulated the parameters of the task setting between WM and flanker tasks (Experiments 1-4), the perceptual load of flanker task (Experiment 5), the settings of the flanker stimuli and the WM load (Experiment 6), and the content overlap between WM task and flanker task and the exposure time of flanker task (Experiments 7, 8, and 9). However, in 11 out of 12 sub-experiments we consistently found that the visual WM load did not modulate the distractor processing. The implications of these findings are discussed.

It has been suggested that retaining bindings in working memory (WM) requires more object-based attention than retaining constituent features. Recent studies have found that when memorized stimuli are presented sequentially, the most recent stimulus is in a highly accessible privileged state such that it is retained in a relatively automatic and resource-free manner, whereas the other stimuli are in a non-privileged state. The current study investigated whether the activation states of WM modulate the role of object-based attention in retaining bindings in WM. To address this question, we presented three colored shapes sequentially and added a transparent-motion task (Experiment 1) or a mental rotation task (Experiment 2) into the WM maintenance phase to consume object-based attention. We consistently found that consuming object-based attention led to a larger impairment to bindings relative to constituent features, which is independent of the WM activation states, suggesting that object-based attention is critical in retaining bindings in WM across activation states of WM.

Extensive studies have revealed that cognitive processing was impaired after anesthesia and surgery, particularly for the elderly patients. However, most of the existing studies focused on the general cognitive deficits (e.g., delayed neuro-cognitive recovery and POCD). Although diagnosis of social abilities has been used in various clinical fields, few studies have investigated the potential deficit on social cognition after anesthesia and surgery. The current study examined whether there was any social cognitive dysfunction after anesthesia and surgery. We achieved this by taking biological motion (BM) as the stimuli of interest, the perception of which has been taken as the hallmark of social cognition. The elderly patients (aged ≥ 60 years) were required to judge whether an upright BM stimulus appeared among the dynamic noises to test their social cognition, as well as do a Mini-Mental State Examination to test their general cognition. The two tests were performed at both 1-day before and 7-day after the surgery. Results showed that 31.25% of patients exhibited BM perception deficit after anesthesia and surgery relative to before anesthesia and surgery, implying that social cognitive dysfunction existed. Meanwhile, social cognitive dysfunction was independent from delayed neurocognitive recovery.