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Sagittarius (Sgr) A* is a massive black hole at the Milky Way center with mass of about 4.5 million solar masses. It is usually quite faint, emiting steadily at all wavelengths including X-rays. Since the beginning of this century, rapid and intensive X-ray flares are regularly detected from Sgr A* at a rate of about once a day. Conventionally, these mysterious events daily occurred at the Milky Way center are believed to be caused by the falling of objects such as asteroids, comets, and planets onto the massive black hole. However, the physical process of how the falling objects to produce the observed X-ray flares is still poorly understood. It is unclear why the gases, formed by tearing the falling objects apart, can be heated up to 100 million degrees Celsius so suddenly on a regular basis. This study develops a new alternative mechanism and provides a possible explanation for the observations of X-ray flares from Sgr A*, in accordance with the black hole universe model that was recently proposed by Zhang. The results obtained from this study indicate that X-ray flares from the Milky Way center can be understood as emissions of the dynamic massive black hole (i.e. Sgr A*). A massive or supermassive black hole, when accreting matter or objects from the outside, becomes dynamic and breaks its event horizon, which leads to the inside hot (or high-frequency) blackbody radiation leaking and produces X-ray flares or bursts. The energies and spec- tra of X-ray flares that Sgr A* can produce when it accretes objects with various sizes including asteroids, comets, planets, and stars are theoretically analyzed and numeri- cally calculated. In terms of results obtained from these analyses and calculations, we explain the current measurements of X-ray flares from Sgr A*, predict events that will possibly occur at our galactic center in future, and compare the extremely intensive events predicted with the strong X-ray flares measured from other normal and active galactic centers. This study develops a new physical mechanism for the origin of X-ray flares from galactic centers and deepens our understanding t o the black hole dynamics, galactic activities, and cosmological evolutions.

Pulsars are thought to be fast rotating neutron stars, synchronously emitting periodic Dirac-delta-shape radio-frequency pulses and Lorentzian-shape oscillating X-rays. The acceleration of charged particles along the magnetic field lines of neutron stars above the magnetic poles that deviate from the rotating axis initiates coherent beams of ra- dio emissions, which are viewed as pulses of radiation whenever the magnetic poles sweep the viewers. However, the conventional lighthouse model of pulsars is only con- ceptual. The mechanism through which particles are accelerated to produce coherent beams is still not fully understood. The process for periodically oscillating X-rays to emit from hot spots at the inner edge of accretion disks remains a mystery. In addition, a lack of reflecting X-rays of the pulsar by the Crab Nebula in the OFF phase does not support the lighthouse model as expected. In this study, we develop a physical model of pulsars to quantitatively interpret the emission characteristics of pulsars, in accor- dance with the author’s well-developed five-dimensional fully covariant Kaluza-Klein gravitational shielding theory and the physics of thermal and accelerating charged par- ticle radiation. The results obtained from this study indicate that, with the significant gravitational shielding by scalar field, a neutron star nonlinearly oscillates and produces synchronous periodically Dirac-delta-shape radio-frequency pulses (emitted by the os- cillating or accelerating charged particles) as well as periodically Lorentzian-shape os- cillating X-rays (as the thermal radiation of neutron stars whose temperature varies due to the oscillation). This physical model of pulsars broadens our understanding of neu- tron stars and develops an innovative mechanism to model the emissions of pulsars.

A new possible explanation to the luminosity distance (DL) and redshift (Z) measurements of type Ia supernovae (SNeIa) is developed. Instead of modifying the theory of general relativity or the Friedmann equation of cosmology with an extra scalar field or unknown energy component (e.g., dark energy), we re-examine the relationship between the luminosity distance and the cosmological redshift (DL Z). It is found that the DL Z relation previously applied to connect the cosmological model with the measured SNeIa data is only valid for nearby objects with Z ≪ 1. The luminosity distances of all distant SNela with Z ≳ 1 had been underestimated. The newly derived DL Z relation has an extra factor p 1 + Z, with which the cosmological model exactly explains all the SNeIa measurements without dark energy. This result indicates that our universe has not accelerated and does not need dark energy at all.

The gravitational field shielding by scalar field and type II superconductors are theoret- ically investigated. In accord with the well-developed five-dimensional fully covariant Kaluza-Klein theory with a scalar field, which unifies the Einsteinian general relativity and Maxwellian electromagnetic theory, the scalar field cannot only polarize the space as shown previously, but also flatten the space as indicated recently. The polariza- tion of space decreases the electromagnetic field by increasing the equivalent vacuum permittivity constant, while the flattening of space decreases the gravitational field by decreasing the equivalent gravitational constant. In other words, the scalar field can be also employed to shield the gravitational field. A strong scalar field significantly shield the gravitational field by largely decreasing the equivalent gravitational constant. According to the theory of gravitational field shielding by scalar field, the weight loss experimentally detected for a sample near a rotating ceramic disk at very low tempera- ture can be explained as the shielding of the Earth gravitational field by the Ginzburg- Landau scalar field, which is produced by the type II superconductors. The significant shielding of gravitational field by scalar field produced by superconductors may lead to a new spaceflight technology in future.

Formation and energy emission of quasars are investigated in accord with the black hole universe, a new cosmological model recently developed by Zhang. According to this new cosmological model, the universe originated from a star-like black hole and grew through a supermassive black hole to the present universe by accreting ambient matter and merging with other black holes. The origin, structure, evolution, expansion, and cosmic microwave background radiation of the black hole universe have been fully ex- plained in Paper I and II. This study as Paper III explains how a quasar forms, ignites and releases energy as an amount of that emitted by dozens of galaxies. A main sequence star, after its fuel supply runs out, will, in terms of its mass, form a dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole. A normal galaxy, after its most stars have run out of their fuels and formed dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, will eventually shrink its size and collapse towards the center by gravity to form a supermassive black hole with billions of solar masses. This collapse leads to that extremely hot stellar black holes merge each other and further into the massive black hole at the center and meantime release a huge amount of radiation energy that can be as great as that of a quasar. Therefore, when the stellar black holes of a galaxy collapse and merge into a supermassive black hole, the galaxy is activated and a quasar is born. In the black hole universe, the observed dis- tant quasars powered by supermassive black holes can be understood as donuts from the mother universe. They were actually formed in the mother universe and then swallowed into our universe. The nearby galaxies are still very young and thus quiet at the present time. They will be activated and further evolve into quasars after billions of years. At that time, they will enter the universe formed by the currently observed distant quasars as similar to the distant quasars entered our universe. The entire space evolves itera- tively. When one universe expands out, a new similar universe is formed from its inside star-like or supermassive black holes.

The turning point and acceleration expansion of the universe are investigated according to the standard cosmological theory with a non-zero cosmological constant. Choosing the Hubble constant H 0 , the radius of the present universe R 0 , and the density parameter in matter Ω M , 0 as three independent parameters, we have analytically examined the other properties of the universe such as the density parameter in dark energy, the cosmologi- cal constant, the mass of the universe, the turning point redshift, the age of the present universe, and the time-dependent radius, expansion rate, velocity, and acceleration pa- rameter of the universe. It is shown that the turning point redshift is only dependent of the density parameter in matter, not explicitly on the Hubble constant and the radius of the present universe. The universe turned its expansion from past deceleration to recent acceleration at the moment when its size was about 3 / 5 of the present size if the density parameter in matter is about 0.3 (or the turning point redshift is 0.67). The expansion rate is very large in the early period and decreases with time to approach the Hubble constant at the present time. The expansion velocity exceeds the light speed in the early period. It decreases to the minimum at the turning point and then increases with time. The minimum and present expansion velocities are determined with the independent parameters. The solution of time-dependent radius shows the universe expands all the time. The universe with a larger present radius, smaller Hubble constant, and / or smaller density parameter in matter is elder. The universe with smaller density parameter in matter accelerates recently in a larger rate but less than unity.

The emergence or formation of leptons from particles composed of quarks is still re- mained very poorly understood. In this paper, we propose that leptons are formed by quark-antiquark annihilations. There are two types of quark-antiquark annihilations. Type-I quark-antiquark annihilation annihilates only color charges, which is an incom- plete annihilation and forms structureless and colorless but electrically charged leptons such as electron, muon, and tau particles. Type-II quark-antiquark annihilation an- nihilates both electric and color charges, which is a complete annihilation and forms structureless, colorless, and electrically neutral leptons such as electron, muon, and tau neutrinos. Analyzing these two types of annihilations between up and down quarks and antiquarks with an excited quantum state for each of them, we predict the fourth gener- ation of leptons named lambda particle and neutrino. On the contrary quark-antiquark annihilation, a lepton particle or neutrino, when it collides, can be disintegrated into a quark-antiquark pair. The disintegrated quark-antiquark pair, if it is excited and / or changed in flavor during the collision, will annihilate into another type of lepton par- ticle or neutrino. This quark-antiquark annihilation and pair production scenario pro- vides unique understanding for the formation of leptons, predicts the fourth generation of leptons, and explains the oscillation of neutrinos without hurting the standard model of particle physics. With this scenario, we can understand the recent OPERA measure- ment of a tau particle in a muon neutrino beam as well as the early measurements of muon particles in electron neutrino beams.

A classical unification theory that completely unifies all the fundamental interactions of nature is developed. First, the nature is suggested to be composed of the following four fundamental elements: mass, radiation, electric charge, and color charge. All known types of matter or particles are a combination of one or more of the four fundamental elements. Photons are radiation; neutrons have only mass; protons have both mass and electric charge; and quarks contain mass, electric charge, and color charge. The nature fundamental interactions are interactions among these nature fundamental elements. Mass and radiation are two forms of real energy. Electric and color charges are con- sidered as two forms of imaginary energy. All the fundamental interactions of nature are therefore unified as a single interaction between complex energies. The interac- tion between real energies is the gravitational force, which has three types: mass-mass, mass-radiation, and radiation-radiation interactions. Calculating the work done by the mass-radiation interaction on a photon derives the Einsteinian gravitational redshift. Calculating the work done on a photon by the radiation-radiation interaction derives a radiation redshift, which is much smaller than the gravitational redshift. The interaction between imaginary energies is the electromagnetic (between electric charges), weak (between electric and color charges), and strong (between color charges) interactions. In addition, we have four imaginary forces between real and imaginary energies, which are mass-electric charge, radiation-electric charge, mass-color charge, and radiation- color charge interactions. Among the four fundamental elements, there are ten (six real and four imaginary) fundamental interactions. This classical unification theory deep- ens our understanding of the nature fundamental elements and interactions, develops a new concept of imaginary energy for electric and color charges, and provides a possible source of energy for the origin of the universe from nothing to the real world.

A new cosmological model called black hole universe is proposed. According to this model, the universe originated from a hot star-like black hole with several solar masses, and gradually grew up through a supermassive black hole with billion solar masses to the present state with hundred billion-trillion solar masses by accreting ambient mate- rials and merging with other black holes. The entire space is structured with infinite layers hierarchically. The innermost three layers are the universe that we are living, the outside called mother universe, and the inside star-like and supermassive black holes called child universes. The outermost layer is infinite in radius and limits to zero for both the mass density and absolute temperature. The relationships among all layers or universes can be connected by the universe family tree. Mathematically, the entire space can be represented as a set of all universes. A black hole universe is a subset of the en- tire space or a subspace. The child universes are null sets or empty spaces. All layers or universes are governed by the same physics - the Einstein general theory of relativity with the Robertson-walker metric of spacetime - and tend to expand outward physically. The evolution of the space structure is iterative. When one universe expands out, a new similar universe grows up from its inside. The entire life of a universe begins from the birth as a hot star-like or supermassive black hole, passes through the growth and cools down, and expands to the death with infinite large and zero mass density and absolute temperature. The black hole universe model is consistent with the Mach principle, the observations of the universe, and the Einstein general theory of relativity. Its various aspects can be understood with the well-developed physics without any difficulty. The dark energy is not required for the universe to accelerate its expansion. The inflation is not necessary because the black hole universe does not exist the horizon problem.

Electric charge is considered as a form of imaginary energy. With this consideration, the energy of an electrically charged particle is a complex number. The real part is propor- tional to the mass, while the imaginary part is proportional to the electric charge. The energy of an antiparticle is given by conjugating the energy of its corresponding parti- cle. Newton’s law of gravity and Coulomb’s law of electric force are classically unified into a single expression of the interaction between the complex energies of two electri- cally charged particles. Interaction between real energies (or masses) is the gravitational force. Interaction between imaginary energies (or electric charges) is the electromag- netic force. Since radiation is also a form of real energy, there are another two types of interactions between real energies: the mass-radiation interaction and the radiation- radiation interaction. Calculating the work done by the mass-radiation interaction on a photon, we can derive the Einsteinian gravitational redshift. Calculating the work done by the radiation-radiation interaction on a photon, we can obtain a radiation red- shift. This study suggests the electric charge as a form of imaginary energy, so that classically unifies the gravitational and electric forces and derives the Einsteinian grav- itational redshift.