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This paper provides recommendations on thermal and moisture parameters (air, temperature, and humidity content) in different types of buildings under normal and emergency operation conditions in extreme climate conditions, e.g., cold/arctic (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE] climate zones 6-8) and hot and humid (DOE climate zones 0-2a). Three scenarios are considered under normal operating conditions: when the building/space is occupied, temporarily unoccupied (2-5 days), and unoccupied long term (e.g., hibernated). These thermal parameters are necessary to achieve one or several of the following purposes: • to perform required work in a building in a safe and efficient manner, • to support processes housed in the building, and • to provide conditions required for a long-term integrity of the building and building materials. Many emergency conditions may occur during the life of a building. This paper considers the emergency conditions of the interruption of fuel, steam, hot or chilled water, and electrical service leading to the interruption of space-conditioning for the building. Information provided in this paper was developed for military applications (that include a variety of building archetypes) and was based on research performed under the International Energy Agency's Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (IEA EBC) Annex 73, which focuses on the development of guidelines and tools that support the planning of net zero energy resilient public communities (IEA 2020); research performed under the Department of Defense Environmental Security Technology Certification Program project EW18-D1-5281, "Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations"; and research performed under the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army project "Thermal Energy Systems Resiliency for Army Installations Located in Cold Climates." Note that results of this research are applicable to similar public- and private-sector buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resilience of the energy system impacts the primary functionality of critical facilities, such as military installations, hospitals, and education campuses, during disruptions. Throughout the history of energy systems, major disruptions of energy supply (both electrical and thermal) have degraded critical capabilities and caused significant social and economic impacts to private and public communities. Therefore, resilience must be an integral goal of the community-wide energy master planning (EMP) process, and application of energy resilience principles is important during the design of new and the upgrade of existing energy systems. The integration of resilience goals into the EMP process on the campus level is discussed in detail by Jeffers et al. (2020). Best practices for resilient electric and thermal energy systems favor the use of installed energy sources rather than emergency generation for short durations and promote the use of multiple and diverse sources of energy, favoring energy resources originating within the community (DOD 2020). Examples of best practices of such systems implementation will be described in the planned International Energy Agency Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (IEA EBC) Annex 73 case studies book (IEA n.d.). The energy system options that can be used for power supply, heating, and cooling of campuses vary by their architectures and technologies used, including for individual buildings, building clusters, the campus-wide level, and the community level. Design and evaluation of system resilience should be based on requirements established by mission operators, which are currently not well understood. Metrics for energy resilience fall into two broad categories: attribute based and performance based (Vugrin et al. 2017; Roege et al. 2014). Attribute-based metrics can be counted or populated via checklists or surveys. They often describe the characteristics that make a system resilient, such as robustness or reliability (NIAC 2009). However, these metrics are difficult to integrate into the EMP process because they are not easily compared with performance-based metrics in other categories, such as cost-effectiveness (e.g., overall net present value of the energy system) or sustainability (e.g., kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions) (Jeffers et al. 2020). This paper provides a definition of resilience metrics and offers a methodology to address site-specific requirements for resilience based on the level of mission criticality, the remoteness of the site which results in the time for system repair, and whether the mission is duplicated and can be executed at any other sites. The paper also describes a quantitative approach that allows for evaluation of both the ability of a system to absorb the impact of a disruption (robustness) and its ability to recover. The definition of resilience and the methods to quantify resilience used in this paper allow it to be directly integrated via performance-based metrics within alternative designs of energy systems. While there have been more discussions and research related to resilience of electric energy systems, resilience of thermal energy systems is also important, especially for extreme climate locations. This paper addresses requirements to resilience for both electric and thermal systems comprised of energy conversion, distribution, and storage components. Additional information on requirements for resilience of thermal energy systems can be found in the work by Zhivov et al. (n.d.). This paper is based on research conducted under IEA EBC Annex 73 and the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) project Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations (Zhivov n.d.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently, most planners at military installations addressed energy systems for new facilities on an individual facility basis without consideration of community-wide goals relevant to energy sources, renewables, storage, or future energy generation needs. Building retrofits of public buildings typically do not address energy needs beyond the minimum code requirements making it difficult, if not impossible, to achieve community-level targets on a building-by-building basis. Planning on the basis of cost and general reliability may also fail to deliver community-level resilience. For example, many building code requirements focus on hardening to specific threats, but in a multi-building community, only a few of these buildings may be mission-critical. Over the past two decades, the frequency and duration of regional power outages and water utility disruptions from weather, man-made events, and aging infrastructure have increased. Major disruptions of electric and thermal energy have degraded critical mission capabilities and caused significant economic impacts. In 2016, the U.S. Department of Defense issued guidance that each Service (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) complete comprehensive energy plans for the installations that consumed 75% of total building energy. Guidance was updated in 2017 to include metrics for energy resilience, and in some cases, water. This paper describes how community level quantitative and qualitative resilience analysis and metrics have been incorporated into community energy and water planning best practices for military installations in three geographically diverse locations. It is based on research performed under the International Energy Agency's "Energy in Buildings and Communities Program Annex 73," focusing on development of guidelines and tools that support the planning of Net Zero Energy Resilient Public Communities as well as research performed under the Department of Defense Environmental Security Technology Certification Program project EW18-D1-5281, "Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations." The first case study reviews progress made on an energy and water planning study conducted at Fort Bliss, Texas. The second and third describes planning conducted at Fort Bragg, North Carolina and the Joint Region Marianas, Guam, respectively, under the updated guidance from 2017 regarding energy and water resilience. Analysis methods, key metrics, and key infrastructure and operational constraints are described, as well as technical, economic and business concepts used during the planning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the major outcomes of the recently completed International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy and Buildings and Communities (EBC) Annex 61 "Business and Technical Concepts for Deep Energy Retrofit in Public Buildings" is a Technical Guide (EBC 2017a) that contains a list of core energy efficiency technologies generated from the results of case studies (EBC 2017b), from surveys and discussions conducted at the ASHRAE Technical Committee (TC) 7.6, "Federal Buildings" working group meetings in 2013 and 2014, and from previous experience and research conducted by the EBC Annex 61 team members. These technologies, when applied together (as a bundle), will reduce total building site energy use by about 50% (including plug loads). Technical characteristics of these building retrofit technologies, grouped into a core technologies bundle, have been studied through modeling and life cycle cost (LCC) analysis for representative national climate conditions. Among these technologies are those related to the building envelope; lighting; and heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. When a building undergoes a deep energy retrofit (DER) that is conducted as part of a major renovation project, the duct system is usually replaced. Replacing it with a well-insulated and airtight system is one of the most cost-effective energy efficiency measures available. One reason is that the airflows through air-handling units (AHUs) connected to ducts must be sufficient to compensate for air leakage involving ducts and duct-mounted components (HVAC system air leakage). These AHU airflows account for a large fraction of the energy use in buildings. For example, in the United States,HVACsystem air leakage is ranked as the primary source of energy inefficiency in commercial buildings; it wasted an estimated $2.9 billion in 2005 (Mills 2009). Based on research results and experience from the United States and around the world (especially in Scandinavia), this paper provides recommendations on costeffective targets for ductwork airtightness and a quality assurance process for achieving these targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presidio of Monterey, home to the Defense Language Institute, faces the same challenges as other Army bases in managing its aging building stock. More than 25% of the barracks, for example, were built in the 1960s and lack today's safety, comfort, and energy-efficiency standards. In preparing to address the shortfalls of one such Presidio barracks, Building 630, the Directorate of Public Works staff worked with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to chart a path forward. Rather than relying on conventional approaches to infrastructure modernization, stakeholders decided to craft the military's first documented deep energy retrofit (DER) solution. The Army defines a DER as "a major building renovation project in which site energy use intensity (including plug loads) has been reduced by at least 50% from the pre-renovation baseline with a corresponding improvement in indoor environmental quality and comfort"(Zhivov et al. 2016). For Presidio, preliminary energy modeling helped set an ambitious but achievable goal of 86% energy savings using a combination of high performance envelope requirements with super-efficient (but commercially available) HVAC and lighting systems including solar hot-water generation sized for 70% of the domestic load. Ultimately, Presidio will apply the successes and lessons learned of its first DER towards additional retrofit projects to better align with its mandated net zero energy trajectory. The true value, however, lies in leveraging energy savings as a part of renovation projects aimed at raising the quality of facility conditions to a level commensurate with the mission of its occupants. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the acquisition strategies employed and field lessons learned in an attempt to better guide prospective DER project stakeholders. Being a federal facility, this project employed a regimented process to its various contracting phases with some strategic augmentation to support the DER method that is transferable to similar retrofit efforts. As a pilot effort, there have also been many process-based and technical lessons learned that can be used to bolster future DER work at Presidio, in the Army, and throughout the sustainability industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the critical tasks of the International Energy Agency's Energy Conservation in Buildings and Communities (IEC ECBC) Program's Annex 61, "Business and Technical Concepts for Deep Energy Retrofit (DER) of Public Buildings" is to develop bundles of core technologies (measures), which, when applied in major renovation projects to older (pre-1980) buildings, allow site energy reduction by 50% or better compared to the pre-renovation baseline. A short list of these technologies has been generated through an analysis of DER projects. Characteristics of some of these core technologies depend on technologies available on an individual nation's market, minimum requirements of national standards, and lifecycle cost (LCC) analysis. In addition to these factors, requirements for building envelope-related technologies (e.g., insulation levels, windows) depend on specific climate conditions. Previously, results published in a paper entitled "Parametric Study of Core Energy Efficiency Measures Used in Deep Energy Retrofits for Barracks and Office Facilities" showed that typical renovations that meet only the minimum code requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2010 result in reduction of building energy use (including plug loads) in Climate Zones 1 through 8 by only 8% to 16% compared to the baseline in barracks and by 8% to 22% in administrative buildings. With a DER scenario, heating energy can be further reduced, reaching 87% to 90% reduction in barracks and by 63% to 87% in administrative buildings. Cooling energy can be reduced by 60% to 67% in barracks and by 51 to 58% in administrative buildings. Reduction of lighting energy in barracks and administrative buildings will be 50% and 22%, respectively. The major part of remaining energy consumption in barracks is due to energy use by plug loads and heating of the domestic hot water (DHW). In administrative buildings, the major remaining part is due to plug loads. Barracks and office facilities have relatively low ventilation and internal loads compared with dining facilities, which raises the question about whether the core technologies used for them will be as effective in buildings with higher ventilation and internal loads. This paper shows that application of a core technologies bundle to dining facilities, which have high process loads and ventilation requirements, significantly improves energy use in the building compared to the typical renovation scenario but does not come close to requirements of DER. A DER of a dining facility (DFAC) is a very capital-intense proposition when compared to barracks and administration buildings. Further energy use reduction requires selection of energy-efficient process equipment and improvements in ventilation systems (hood capture efficiency improvement, exhaust air heat recovery, and use of ventilation system demand control). Additional energy saving can come from dishwasher greywater heat recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous pilot projects conducted all over the world have demonstrated that energy use in commercial and public buildings can been reduced by more than 50% after renovation. In fact, some renovated building shavemet the Passive House Institute energy efficiency standard or have even achieved a net zero energy state (Zhivov et al. 2015). Research (IEA 2009;ASHRAE 2015) has identified more than 400 energy efficiency measures that can be used when buildings are retrofitted. Such measures include those related to the building envelope, mechanical and lighting systems, energy generation and distribution, and internal processes. Implementation of some individual measures (such as building envelope insulation, improved airtightness, andcogeneration)cansignificantlyreducebuilding heatingand cooling loads or minimize energy waste, but require significant investments with long paybacks. However, when a limited number of core technologies are implemented together ("bundled"), they can significantly reduce energy use for a smaller investment and thereby provide a faster payback. Characteristics of some of these core technology measures depend on the technologies available on an individual nation's market, on the minimum requirements of national standards, and on economics (as determined by a life cycle cost [LCC] analysis). In addition to these measures, requirements related to building envelope-related technologies (e.g., insulation levels, windows, vapor and water barriers, and requirements for building airtightness) depend on specific climate conditions. National teams associated with the International Energy Agency Energy Conservation in Buildings and Communities Program (IEA EBC) Annex 61, Business and Technical Concepts for Deep Energy Retrofit of Public Buildings (EBC 2015), have studied such conditions by computer simulation (Case et al. 2016; Rose et al. 2016; Riel et al. 2016; Yao et al. 2016). This paper summarizes the results of these studies, which will be used in an IEA Energy in Buildings and Communities (EBC) Programme Annex 61, Deep Energy Retrofit--Case Studies (IEA 2015). The key to making a deep energy retrofit(DER)cost effective is to time the retrofit as part of a major building renovation that already has allocated funds, including those required to meet minimum energy requirements. Since there is an overlap between the funds allocated for the retrofit and those required for the DER, achieving the DER requires only an incremental cost because the DER is evaluated based on a bundle of core technologies, not on individual energy efficiency measures. To evaluate the cost effectiveness of DER project using bundles of core technologies, compared to a typical major building renovation based on minimum energy requirements, this paper proposes the use of net present value (NPV) of the differences in energy savings, maintenance, and insurance costs and other operational costs and revenues to estimate the budget increase limit, which makes the DER project LCC effective. Since most of parameters required for an LCC analysis differ not only by the individual country but also within the country (first costs and labor rates, energy rates, life of the project, and inflation and discount rates), the concept of scalar Ratio (McBride 1995) is used to calculate limitations in renovation budget increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the critical tasks of the International Energy Agency's Energy Conservation in Buildings and Communities Program's (IEC ECBC's) Annex 61 Business and Technical Concepts for Deep Energy Retrofit (DER) of Public Buildings is to develop bundles of core technologies (measures), which, when applied in major renovation projects to older, pre-1980 buildings, allow site energy reduction by 50% or better compared to the pre-renovation baseline. A short list of these technologies has been generated through analysis of DER projects (Zhivov et al. 2015). Characteristics of some of these "core technologies" depend on technologies available on an individual nation's market, minimum requirements of national standards, and life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis. In addition to these factors, requirements for building envelope-related technologies (e.g., insulation levels, windows), depend on specific climate conditions. This paper presents the results of computational modeling analysis conducted by the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center team to determine the performance potential of the core technologies for two categories of buildings with relatively low internal loads in 15 U.S. climates using the net zero planner tool. This tool enabled simultaneous simulation of multiple building types and multiple technology bundles of energy efficiency measures in different climate zones. This research supported development of requirements for building envelope characteristics and typical equipment best practices for DER projects. Information presented in the paper along with results of similar studies conducted in Denmark, Estonia, Austria, Germany, China, and the UK (Riel et al. 2016; Yao et al. 2016; Zhivov 2016) for their nation-specific climate conditions have been used to develop general guidelines for technology bundles to be used in DER projects (Zhivov et al. 2016). Results of these studies show that 50% of site energy use reduction can be achieved in most climate conditions usingalimitednumberof technologies readily available on the market. It is easier to reduce energy consumption in heating-dominated climates than in climates requiring coolingandhumidity control. Additional energy efficiency technologies and measures specific to the building type and use, as well as to specific climate conditions, can further reduce energy use intensity of the building and allow achievement of even higher performance buildings (e.g., passive house standard or even net zero energy). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many governments worldwide are setting more stringent targets for reductions in energy use in government/public buildings. Buildings constructed more than 10 years ago account for a major share of energy used by the building stock. However, the funding and "know-how " (applied knowledge) available for owner-directed energy retrofit projects has not kept pace with new requirements. With typical retrofit projects, reduction of energy use varies between 10% and 20%, while experience from executed projects around the globe shows that energy-use reduction can exceed 50%, and renovated buildings can cost-effectively achieve the passive-house standard or even approach net zero energy status (Hermelink and Muller, 2010; NBI 2014; RICS 2013; GreenBuildingAdvisor.com 2013; Shonder and Nasseri 2015; Miller and Higgins 2015; Emmerich et al. 2011). Previous research conducted under the International Energy Agency's Energy in Buildings and Communities Program (IEA EBC) Annex 46 identified and analyzed more than 400 energy-efficiency measures that can be used when buildings are retrofitted. Measures include those related to the building envelope, mechanical and lighting systems, energy generation and distribution, and internal processes. Implementation of some individual measures (such as building envelope insulation, improved airtightness, and cogeneration) can significantly reduce building heating and cooling loads or minimize of energy waste, but require significant investments with long paybacks. However, when a limited number of core technologies are implemented together, or bundled, they can significantly reduce energy use for a smaller investment, thereby providing a faster payback. In some countries, energy savings performance contracts (ESPC) have proven to be an effective tool for implementing energy retrofit projects. Nevertheless, in many countries the number of projects funded by ESPCs still do not form a significant part of the total investment budgeted by public institutions for energy retrofits. This paper presents the concept and several case studies that illustrate mechanisms that will increase the acceptance of deep energy retrofit (DER) and broaden acceptance of its implementation using ESPCs for a comprehensive refurbishment of existing buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of increasing oil prices, the effects of climate change, and the desire to become independent of fossil fuel imports have stimulated many countries and their communities to set ambitious goals to reduce energy use and to increase the relative amount of energy derived from renewable energy sources. The most ambitious goal is to become net-zero relative to fossil fuels or to employ the concept of the energy neutral community/campus. Essentially, both terms denote an energy configuration in which the amount of fossil fuel-based energy used over the course of a year is equal to the amount of energy derived from renewable energy sources that is exported from the community/campus to a power or thermal grid for external users' consumption. Under ideal circumstances, the community consumes no fossil fuel-based energy, only energy generated from renewable sources; this would require the availability of long-term thermal and power storage systems. The achievement of such energy goals in economical and physically realistic ways would require new, unconventional approaches with respect to organization, implementation, funding, and technical decisions. The technical approach involves the emphasis on energy conservation, implementation of energy efficiency measures, use of waste energy streams, reduction of fossil fuel-based energy (if needed), and/or complementation or replacement of fossil fuel-based energy with energy derived from renewable sources. This paper explores approaches used by some of the most innovative International Energy Agency (IEA) countries to develop an ideal road map and transition process to reach net-zero or near net-zero energy targets; analyzes best practices in different countries to provide the best examples of net-zero applications across the globe; and, based on an analysis of solutions using front-running methods and technologies, makes recommendations for energy master planning towards net-zero communities and campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Army is required by law (EPACT 2005, EISA 2007) to eliminate fossil fuel use in new and renovated facilities by 2030 and to reduce overall facility energy usage by 30% by 2015. Army policy is to achieve eight net zero energy pilot installations by 2020, 25 net zero energy installations by 2031, and for all installations to achieve net zero energy status by 2058. Achieving Net Zero Energy (NZE) will only be possible if an optimum mix of demand reduction and renewable sources are put in place at a community (installation) or building cluster scale. The Army operates what are essentially small campuses, or clusters of buildings on its installations. The US Department of Energy (DOE) is focused on the national grid scale or on individual buildings, while the commercial focus is on retrofits to individual buildings. There are only few case studies worldwide that address dynamics of energy systems at the community scale, and to date, there is a lack of tools to perform that task. The building stock at most US Army installations is complex and includes a mix of high and low energy use buildings. Energy use in these buildings varies due to the different military mission and requirements for each building, installation growth and expansion, and soldier deployment. Achieving net zero energy economically at such installations will require a seamless blend of energy conservation in individual buildings and building systems automation, utility management and control, and power delivery systems that have the capability to offer integration of on-site power generation (including renewable energy sources). This paper describes the Net Zero fossil fuel based energy optimization process and illustrates it with an example based on the results of study conducted for a cluster of buildings at Fort Irwin, CA. The integrated optimization process is being developed under the Army research and development project "Modeling Net Zero Installations - Energy (NZI-E)" and the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems (ECBCS) Annex 51. The process is stepped, beginning with the optimization of each building to achieve the most cost effective energy efficient optimization of building envelope and energy using systems. Then energy saving measures affecting the total building cluster are optimized taking advantages of the diversification between energy intensities, scheduling, and waste energy streams utilization. The energy demands of the resulting energy-use optimized cluster will require the minimum sized renewable energy system needed to make the building cluster Net Zero fossil fuel energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of nonresidential building structures shows that many are characterized by high energy consumption. Administrative/office buildings and production and maintenance facilities pose specific challenges to those seeking improved energy management and building energy performance. Questions of energy consumption in these buildings are generally seen as secondary to the improvement of comfort and/or functionality. This is most pronounced within the existing building stock. Decisions to retrofit a building are often made because of dissatisfaction concerning the comfort level or as a consequence of changes in building use or in processes performed in the building. The primary goal of the retrofit is to improve these conditions. Good technologies to meet this end are currently available. The objectives of the International Energy Agency Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems (ECBCS) Programme Annex 46 (IEA 2011a) is intended to provide tools and guidelines to identify energy conservation opportunities in buildings and to improve the indoor environment of these buildings in energy-efficient retrofitting projects. Among the tools developed by this project is the Energy and Process Assessment Protocol, which provides an energy assessment methodology and procedure suitable for different types of sites, including a variety of different nonindustrial buildings with energy requirements dominated by climate, and industrial buildings with high energy loads dominated by internal processes and high ventilation requirements per floor space. This paper presents the energy assessment methodology for a single building or a large building stock, along with examples of typical energy wastes and inefficiencies in different types of buildings and typical processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2005 Energy Policy Act Requires that federal facilities be built to achieve at least a 30% energy savings over the 2004 ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. The Construction Engineering Research Laboratory of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in collaboration with U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters and centers of standardization for respective building types, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and the ASHRAE Military Technology Group have developed design guides to achieve 30% energy savings over a baseline built to the minimum requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 for new buildings to be constructed under the Military Transformation Program. The building types included barracks, administrative buildings (e.g., a battalion headquarters and a company operation facility), a maintenance facility, a dining facility, a child development center, and an Army reserve center. This paper presents the results of the energy analysis for tactical equipment maintenance facilities (TEMFs). It provides a definition of the baseline building selected for the analysis and the modeling assumptions. As a result of a computer analysis using EnergyPlus version 2.0, baseline and target energy budgets are clearly defined for all 15 DOE climate zones. Finally, a recommended set of energy efficiency solutions for each climate zone is presented that enable at least 30% energy savings in addition to improved and more productive work environments that provide better thermal conditions and indoor air quality for soldiers and workers. Results of this study were implemented through the Army's standard design/build process in late 2007 by incorporating the target energy budgets by climate zone and the recommended sets of technologies to meet these budgets into the Army standard Request for Proposal for TEMFs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2005 Energy Policy Act requires that federal facilities be built to achieve at least 30% energy savings over the 2004 ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. The U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in collaboration with USACE Headquarters and centers of standardization for respective building types, the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the ad hoc ASHRAE Military Technology Group have developed design guides to achieve at least 30% energy savings over a baseline built to the minimum requirements of the ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 for new buildings to be constructed under the Military Transformation Program. The building types included barracks (also called unaccompanied enlisted personnel housing or UEPH), trainee barracks, administrative buildings (e.g., a battalion headquarters, a company operation facility), a maintenance facility, a dining facility, a child development center, and an Army reserve center. All design guides were completed in 2007 and 2008. This paper presents the results of the energy analysis for standard Army UEPH barracks. It provides a definition of the baseline building selected for the analysis and the modeling assumptions. As a result of a computer analysis using EnergyPlus version 2.0, baseline and target energy budgets are clearly defined for all 15 DOE climate zones. Finally, a recommended set of energy efficiency solutions for each climate zone is presented that result in at least 30% energy savings in addition to an improved living environment that reduces the potential for mold growth. Results of this study for UEPH barracks were implemented through the Army's standard design-build process in late 2007 by incorporating the target energy budgets and the recommended sets of technologies by climate zone to meet these budgets into the Army standard request for proposal for UEPH barracks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 requires that federal facilities be built to achieve at least 30% energy savings over ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. The Construction Engineering Research Laboratory of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in collaboration with USACE HQ and centers of standardization for respective building types, the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and the ASHRAE MTG have developed design guides to achieve 30% energy savings over a baseline. This baseline was built to the minimum requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 for new buildings to be constructed under the Military Transformation Program. The building types include barracks, administrative buildings, a maintenance facility, a dining facility, a child development center, and an Army reserve center. This paper presents the results of the energy analysis for Dining facilities. It provides a definition of the baseline building and the modeling assumptions. EnergyPlus version 2.1 was used to determine baseline and target energy budgets for all 15 DOE climate zones. Finally, a recommended set of energy-efficient solutions for each climate zone is presented that enable at least 30% energy savings over the baseline. Results of this study were implemented through the Army's standard bid-build process in late 2008 by incorporation in request for proposal target energy budgets by climate zone and sets of technologies to meet these budgets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resilience is contextual. The concept of design basis threat can be used to capture a contextual scenario to measure the resilience of district energy systems against. Design basis threats are low-probability, high-impact events such as hurricanes, flooding, earthquakes, etc. We present a computer-based simulation program to assess the resilience of community-scale district energy systems to various design basis threats. This program simulates both building and districtlevel energy systems consisting of an interconnected network of components. Multiple flows of energy can be modeled: notably, both thermal (heating/cooling) and electrical flows and their interactions. This network of components is made subject to various scenarios which represent one or more ideal cases (i.e., "blue-sky") as well as design basis threats. Each scenario has a probability of occurrence and zero or more intensities associated with it such as wind speed, vibration, water inundation level, etc. Fragility curves are used to relate a scenario's damage intensities (e.g., wind speed) with a component's chance of failure. Performance of the network is assessed while taking into account the possibility of failure due to routine reliability as well as various threats. In so doing, various resilience metrics such as maximum contiguous downtime, energy availability, and load-not-served can be calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arctic climates provide unique challenges for designers of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC), plumbing, and thermal energy systems. The importance of considering outdoor air temperatures, system reliability, and building resiliency cannot be understated. This paper describes best practice examples of robust and reliable systems with the emphasis on their redundancy, durability, and functionality. The paper also discusses the most common heating system and ventilation system approaches used in Arctic climate and emphasizes the importance of a maintenance program that allows building operators to successfully troubleshoot and maintain buildings in the Arctic. Concepts are illustrated by several best practice examples (e.g., U.S. military bases in Alaska and Søndre Strømfjord, the international airport of Greenland that previously was used as a U.S. military base). The paper results from experts' discussions during the Thermal Energy Systems Resilience in Cold/Arctic Climates (ERDC 2020) consultation forum and research conducted under the International Energy Agency's Energy in Buildings and Communities (IEA EBC) Program Annex 73, the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project "Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations," and U.S. Army Program Project 633734T1500 under Military Engineering Technology Demonstration. The paper is complementary to the ASHRAE Cold-Climate Design Guide (ASHRAE 2015) with a focus on resilience of thermal energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing world-wide emphasis on net zero (NZ) or low-energy communities (LECs) has brought with it a concomitant requirement for high quality technical analysis and optimization to support planners. The authors' experience in energy planning for military installations has identified best practice processes as well as common analysis tasks performed by LEC planners. Requirements for data collection, modeling, optimization, and organization of inputs and results are significant, leading to higher cost, long study times, and limits on the number of alternative scenarios that can feasibly be considered. In addition, changes in data or scope can lead to considerable rework, leading to further delay and potential for the introduction of errors. This paper describes a computational framework and reference implementation for LEC analysis and optimization designed to automate many of the repetitive and time-consuming organizational, modeling, and optimization tasks involved in LEC planning. The framework incorporates whole building simulation, community-wide optimization of distribution and supply, geospatial data, and an overall approach to data organization that permits implementers to use their choice of modeling software. A reference implementation of the framework, the NZ planner was developed and tested at four Department of Defense installations. Results show decreased time to set up studies and to conduct simulations and optimization. This paper provides examples and discusses trade-offs between process steps that should be automated and those that are more appropriate for human judgment and experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Energy Research Laboratory (CERL), and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) worked together to explore the potential to reach the 2015 energy performance goal of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007: to reduce fossil fuel-generated energy consumption by 65% for five common military construction building types (U.S. Congress 2007). This report covers the analysis, approach, and results examining energy performance for the Army tactical equipment maintenance facility. Starting with a previous project by CERL and NREL that explored 30% energy savings for the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (U.S. Congress 2005), the current project was able to achieve 40%-63% site energy savings (depending on climate zone) compared to a baseline building model, and 51%-76% source energy savings compared to Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey 2003 (EIA 2008) data for a similar building type. Recommended energy efficiency measures include passive house insulation standards, demand control ventilation strategies in the maintenance repair bays, radiant floor heating, transpired solar collectors, reduced lighting power densities, daylighting, and lighting control strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), academia, and private sector subject matter experts, recently completed an energy study to evaluate potential site and source energy-use reduction in new Army buildings. The study was completed in response to the mandates for energy savings in federal buildings enacted by the U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (U.S. Congress 2007). The building types studied included an Unaccompanied Enlisted Personnel Housing (UEPH or barracks), a brigade headquarters (administrative building), a company operation facility, a maintenance facility, and a dining facility (DFAC). The study was conducted for representative locations in all 15 DOE identified climate zones in the United States with building designs adapted to these climatic conditions. This paper presents the results of the energy analysis for a typical Army dining facility. It discusses energy efficiency measures and combinations used to reduce both internal and external loads on the building and overall energy use. The largest load in a DFAC is the cooking, and the currently available best-in-class kitchen equipment is included in the final design. The potential site energy savings compared to the energy code range from 21% to 38%. The potential source energy savings compared to Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey ranges from 37% to 42%. Additional savings may be obtained if an efficient cogeneration system is used and the building is considered as a part of the building cluster or community to fully utilize the energy from the cogeneration system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) require that all new federal facilities be built fossil fuel free by 2030. This raises the bar considerably from the 2005 Energy Policy Act, which required federal facilities be built to achieve at least 30% energy savings over ASHRAE Standard 90.1 - 2004. On the trajectory towards the 2030 goal, buildings have to meet 65% decrease of source energy from the Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) survey for the building type specified. The EISA requirement is not a comparison between a baseline and an energy efficient simulation, but a direct comparison with the actual results from the final simulation with the EISA target. This is not a delta percentage comparison; it includes total source energy and all the building loads must be addressed and not left out of the calculation as an unregulated portion of the building load. The result of the study was guidance on how to reach a 60-80% energy use reduction from Commercial Building Energy Consumption Study (CBECS). The 2005 Energy Policy Act requires that federal facilities be built to achieve at least a 30% energy savings over the 2004 ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. The Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in collaboration with USACE HQ and Centers of Standardization for respective building types, subject matter expert (SME) contractors, and the DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) participated in a study to recommend design guides to achieve the Federal requirements for new buildings to be constructed under the Military Transformation Program. The building types included Unaccompanied Enlisted Personnel Housing or UEPH, administrative buildings (e.g., a brigade headquarters, and a company operation facility), a tactical equipment maintenance facility, and a dining facility. This paper presents the results of the energy analysis for the soldier barracks (UEPH). It provides the baseline building selected for the analysis and the modeling assumptions. As a result of a computer analysis using EnergyPlus, the target energy budgets are defined for all DOE 15 Climate Zones. Finally, a recommended set of energy efficient solutions for each climate zone is presented that shows the buildings limit as it approached net zero ready. It shows potential energy savings both on the building site and source energy when energy use reduction is considered on a building-by-building basis. It also shows further energy use reduction opportunities when energy improvements are made with each building considered as a part of the building cluster or community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prescriptive guidelines for thermal insulation in the design of buildings in cold climates have traditionally been derived by a holistic consideration of climatic factors, energy policy, environmental policy, and economics. The differences in thermal barrier requirements in buildings across the arctic and subarctic regions of the world are influenced as much by the differing priorities of the governing bodies that set these requirements as by actual physical demands and conditions. Usually, national requirements for building envelope characteristics such as thermal insulation values, building envelope airtightness, vapor permeability, building mass, and detailing are based on economics, durability, and environmental considerations. Consideration of thermal energy system resilience provides a new paradigm through which to view the optimization of these parameters. The paper describes specifics of construction in cold climates; summarizes best practice requirements for the building envelope characteristics for buildings located in cold and arctic climate of the United States, Canada, and Scandinavian countries; provides some details illustrating how to implement these requirements; and compares the effects of different levels of building envelope efficiency and building mass on indoor air temperature decay when heat supply is interrupted. The paper also presents results from experts’ discussions during the consultation forum “Thermal Energy Systems Resilience in Cold/Arctic Climates” (ERDC 2020) and research conducted under the IEA EBC Annex 73, the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project “Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations,” and U.S. Army Program project 633734T1500 under Military Engineering Technology Demonstration. The paper complements the Cold-Climate Design Guide (ASHRAE 2015) with a focus on the resilience of thermal energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal energy systems’ resilience is especially important for extreme climates, such as arctic or tropical environments. While metrics and requirements for availability, reliability, and quality of power systems have been established (DOD 2020), similar metrics and requirements for thermal energy systems are not well understood. In one of the first attempts to address this deficiency, a study was conducted to better understand the level of reliability required for energy supply systems that will be capable of supporting environmental conditions required for the facility’s mission, the comfort of people, and sustainment of a building in arctic environments under predominant threat scenarios. This paper is split into two parts. The purpose of Part I is to present the methodology and results of a unique temperature decay test conducted during the winter, along with blower door tests on five representative military buildings in Alaska. In Part II, the modeling analysis is compared and calibrated to the experimental data collection for the thermal decay test (TDT). A reliable building model allows us to predict the maximum time available to repair the heat supply system before the building needs to be evacuated, when damage is done to equipment or facilities critical to the building operations, or when damage is done to the building itself. This will provide guidance to building managers on evacuation and sustainment procedures for buildings in arctic climates that are affected by fuel or electrical disruptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal energy systems’ resilience is especially important in extreme climates such as arctic or tropical environments. While metrics and requirements for availability, reliability, and quality of power systems have been established (DOD 2020), similar metrics and requirements for thermal energy systems are not well understood. In one of the first attempts to address this deficiency, a study was conducted to better understand the level of reliability required for energy supply systems that will be capable of supporting environmental conditions required for the facility’s mission, the comfort of people, and sustainment of a building in arctic environments under predominant threat scenarios. This paper is split into two parts. The purpose of Part I is to present the methodology and results of a novel temperature decay test conducted during the winter, along with blower door tests on five representative military buildings in Alaska. In Part II, a building modeling analysis is compared and calibrated to the experimental data collection for the thermal decay test (TDT) and a reliable building model that allows prediction of the maximum time available to repair the heat supply system before the building needs to be evacuated when damage is done to equipment or facilities is described. The results from the field tests described in Part 1 indicate that the rate of decay is dependent on the time of day (i.e., amount of sunlight) and building features, and will vary within the building relative to wind direction. This study, combined with the modeling analysis addressed in Part II, will provide guidance to building managers on evacuation and sustainment procedures for buildings in arctic climates that are affected by thermal energy supply systems, HVAC systems, fuel, or electrical disruptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes in detail a process for integrating resilience goals within the Energy Master Planning Process. Focusing on the district scale, methodologies are discussed to quantify the resilience benefits of energy system designs and determine trade-offs between resilience and blue-sky performance. Systems are aggregated to a mission function level with the goal of keeping critical functions online during emergency events. We outline how to down-select the top threats for the area, how to apply the corresponding threat profiles and fragility curves to the system's infrastructure elements, and how to evaluate resilience metrics using systems modeling techniques. Design options to improve the system's resilience to the selected threats are suggested by the process. All steps of the process are applied to a notional example. The paper concludes with a discussion of the capability gaps and a path forward for implementing this process for energy master planners. This paper is based on research performed under the International Energy Agency's Energy in Buildings and Communities Program Annex 73, focusing on development of guidelines and tools that support the planning of Net Zero Energy Resilient Public Communities as well as research performed under the Department of Defense Environmental Security Technology Certification Program project EW18-D1-5281, "Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Installations.". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the framing constraints for building and community energy projects that must be considered when energy master planning (EMP) is conducted. The constraints cover emissions, sustainability, resilience, regulations and directives, and regional and local limitations such as available energy types, local conditions, and project requirements. The paper reflects development results from participants in an International Energy Agency project on energy master planning and in a U.S. Department of Defense project on technology integration to achieve resilient, low-energy use military installations. It identifies a comprehensive list of framing constraints categorized into locational threats, locational resources, energy and water distribution and storage systems, building and facility, indoor environmental, and equipment in buildings and district systems constraints. In addition, it identifies limits for these constraints that exist in seven participating countries. Some framing constraints can profoundly impact technology selection while others impact the installation of technologies (as in hardening) and have little to no impact on technology selection. Framing constraints can be assessed in different ways and there are resources available to help EMP stakeholders evaluate them. Finally, a case is made that identifying and applying framing constraints early in EMP can bring efficiencies and better focus to the EMP process. Conclusions include 1) for holistic energy planning, it is essential to identify and assess the framing constraints that bound an optimized EMP solution, 2) framing constraints limits should be evaluated as either hard or soft or promising technologies may fall out of an EMP analysis, 3) to maintain consistent quality in the EMP process, the identification of framing constraints and their limits, and perhaps their evaluation, should be standardized, 4) a standardized approach could establish a baseline that can be used, built upon, and improved, 5) as automated EMP tools are improved or developed, the resources in this paper could possibly contribute to their interworkings relative to technology screening, and 6) continued climate change and resulting aggressive goal setting will likely drive a continued and strong emphasis on EMP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community-scale energy planning represents a multidiscipline problem involving the competition of many economic, environmental, energy security, and logistical requirements. This complex problem is routinely faced by U.S. military installations, both domestic and abroad, and can result in unnecessary financial and personnel costs if a suboptimal solution is chosen. In response to this problem, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has developed a community-scale, mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) based model to assist in the selection of energy supply and distribution equipment and to determine optimal schedules of operation. The model was developed to minimize the total annual equivalent cost of providing thermal and electric power to clusters of buildings by selecting from existing or potential equipment using a fully centralized, fully decentralized, or hybrid approach, while meeting all other required constraints. This paper describes the model (with an emphasis on its unique elements in relation to similar existing models), its limitations, and considerations for future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]