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Abstract Background Conflict situations, armed or not, have been associated with emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. This review aims to identify the pathways through which infectious diseases emerge within conflict situations and to outline appropriate infectious disease preparedness and response strategies. Methods A systematic review was performed representing published evidence from January 2000 to October 2023. Ovid Medline and Embase were utilised to obtain literature on infectious diseases in any conflict settings. The systematic review adhered to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis). No geographical restrictions were imposed. Findings Our review identified 51 studies covering AIDS, Hepatitis B, Tuberculosis, Cholera, Coronavirus 2, Ebola, Poliomyelitis, Malaria, Leishmaniasis, Measles, Diphtheria, Dengue and Acute Bacterial Meningitis within conflict settings in Europe, Middle East, Asia, and Africa since October 2023. Key factors contributing to disease emergence and transmission in conflict situations included population displacement, destruction of vital infrastructure, reduction in functioning healthcare systems and healthcare personnel, disruption of disease control programmes (including reduced surveillance, diagnostic delays, and interrupted vaccinations), reduced access by healthcare providers to populations within areas of active conflict, increased population vulnerability due to limited access to healthcare services, and disruptions in the supply chain of safe water, food, and medication. To mitigate these infectious disease risks reported preparedness and response strategies included both disease-specific intervention strategies as well as broader concepts such as the education of conflict-affected populations through infectious disease awareness programmes, investing in and enabling health care in locations with displaced populations, intensifying immunisation campaigns, and ensuring political commitment and intersectoral collaborations between governments and international organisations. Conclusion Conflict plays a direct and indirect role in the transmission and propagation of infectious diseases. The findings from this review can assist decision-makers in the development of evidence-based preparedness and response strategies for the timely and effective containment of infectious disease outbreaks in conflict zones and amongst conflict-driven displaced populations. Funding European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control under specific contract No. 22 ECD.13,154 within Framework contract ECDC/2019/001 Lot 1B.

Single-use plastics (SUPs), which are used only once or briefly, have become a significant source of litter on European beaches and seas. The European Union (EU), approved the SUP Directive after acknowledging the significant harm that SUPs cause to the environment, human health, and the economy. The SUP Directive requires all relevant parties, including plastics manufacturers, recyclers, retailers, and consumers, to take the appropriate actions and make the necessary investments to protect the environment. The primary objective of the SUP Directive is to prevent and minimize the negative effects that some plastic products have on the environment, particularly the marine environment, as well as on human health. In an effort to combat marine litter, the Directive imposes restrictions and criteria on SUPs that fall under the purview of specific categories and items made from oxo-degradable plastic. This includes, among other things, the phase-out of unnecessary SUPs and oxodegradable plastic, the reduction of SUP consumption and the use of reusable substitutes, the adoption of marking and labelling standards, and the development of extended producer responsibility programs (EPR). Tobacco products with filters and filters marketed for use in conjunction with tobacco products are among the categories covered by the SUP Directive, owing to the fact that tobacco product filters containing plastic are the second most littered single-use plastic items on EU beaches. The implementation of the SUP Directive presents a unique opportunity to educate consumers about the plastic found in tobacco filters and filters marketed for use in conjunction with tobacco products.