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Fungi are highly diverse organisms, which provide multiple ecosystem services. However, compared with charismatic animals and plants, the distribution patterns and conservation needs of fungi have been little explored. Here, we examined endemicity patterns, global change vulnerability and conservation priority areas for functional groups of soil fungi based on six global surveys using a high-resolution, long-read metabarcoding approach. We found that the endemicity of all fungi and most functional groups peaks in tropical habitats, including Amazonia, Yucatan, West-Central Africa, Sri Lanka, and New Caledonia, with a negligible island effect compared with plants and animals. We also found that fungi are predominantly vulnerable to drought, heat and land-cover change, particularly in dry tropical regions with high human population density. Fungal conservation areas of highest priority include herbaceous wetlands, tropical forests, and woodlands. We stress that more attention should be focused on the conservation of fungi, especially root symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal fungi in tropical regions as well as unicellular early-diverging groups and macrofungi in general. Given the low overlap between the endemicity of fungi and macroorganisms, but high conservation needs in both groups, detailed analyses on distribution and conservation requirements are warranted for other microorganisms and soil organisms.

Aim Organisms on our planet form spatially congruent and functionally distinct communities, which at large geographical scales are called “biomes”. Understanding their pattern and function is vital for sustainable use and protection of biodiversity. Current global terrestrial biome classifications are based primarily on climate characteristics and functional aspects of plant community assembly. These and other existing biome schemes do not take account of soil organisms, including highly diverse and functionally important microbial groups. We aimed to define large-scale structure in the diversity of soil microbes (soil microbiomes), pinpoint the environmental drivers shaping it and identify resemblance and mismatch with existing terrestrial biome schemes. Location Global. Time period Current. Major taxa studied Soil eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Methods We collected soil samples from natural environments world-wide, incorporating most known terrestrial biomes. We used high-throughput sequencing to characterize soil biotic communities and k-means clustering to define soil microbiomes describing the diversity of microbial eukaryotic and prokaryotic groups. We used climatic data and soil variables measured in the field to identify the environmental variables shaping soil microbiome structure. Results We recorded strong correlations among fungal, bacterial, archaeal, plant and animal communities, defined a system of global soil microbiomes (producing seven biome types for microbial eukaryotes and six biome types for prokaryotes) and showed that these are typically structured by pH alongside temperature. None of the soil microbiomes are directly paralleled by any current terrestrial biome scheme, with mismatch most substantial for prokaryotes and for microbial eukaryotes in cold climates; nor do they consistently distinguish grassland and forest ecosystems. Main conclusions Existing terrestrial biome classifications represent a limited surrogate for the large-scale diversi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are a ubiquitous group of plant symbionts, yet processes underlying their global assembly — in particular the roles of dispersal limitation and historical drivers — remain poorly understood. Because earlier studies have reported niche conservatism in AM fungi, we hypothesized that variation in taxonomic community composition (i.e., unweighted by taxon relatedness) should resemble variation in phylogenetic community composition (i.e., weighted by taxon relatedness) which reflects ancestral adaptations to historical habitat gradients. Because of the presumed strong dispersal ability of AM fungi, we also anticipated that the large-scale structure of AM fungal communities would track environmental conditions without regional discontinuity. We used recently published AM fungal sequence data (small‐subunit ribosomal RNA gene) from soil samples collected worldwide to reconstruct global patterns in taxonomic and phylogenetic community variation. The taxonomic structure of AM fungal communities was primarily driven by habitat conditions, with limited regional differentiation, and there were two well-supported clusters of communities — occurring in cold and warm conditions. Phylogenetic structure was driven by the same factors, though all relationships were markedly weaker. This suggests that niche conservatism with respect to habitat associations is weakly expressed in AM fungal communities. We conclude that the composition of AM fungal communities tracks major climatic and edaphic gradients, with the effects of dispersal limitation and historic factors considerably less apparent than those of climate and soil.

Classical theory identifies resource competition as the major structuring force of biotic communities and predicts that (i) levels of dominance and richness in communities are inversely related, (ii) narrow niches allow dense “packing” in niche space and thus promote diversity, and (iii) dominants are generalists with wide niches, such that locally abundant taxa also exhibit wide distributions. Current empirical support, however, is mixed. We tested these expectations using published data on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal community composition worldwide. We recorded the expected negative relationship between dominance and richness and, to a degree, the positive association between local and global dominance. However, contrary to expectations, dominance was pronounced in communities where more specialists were present and, conversely, richness was higher in communities with more generalists. Thus, resource competition and niche packing appear to be of limited importance in AM fungal community assembly; rather, patterns of dominance and diversity seem more consistent with habitat filtering and stochastic processes.

Assessing biodiversity status and trends in plant communities is critical for understanding, quantifying and predicting the effects of global change on ecosystems. Vegetation plots record the occurrence or abundance of all plant species co-occurring within delimited local areas. This allows species absences to be inferred, information seldom provided by existing global plant datasets. Although many vegetation plots have been recorded, most are not available to the global research community. A recent initiative, called ‘sPlot’, compiled the first global vegetation plot database, and continues to grow and curate it. The sPlot database, however, is extremely unbalanced spatially and environmentally, and is not open-access. Here, we address both these issues by (a) resampling the vegetation plots using several environmental variables as sampling strata and (b) securing permission from data holders of 105 local-to-regional datasets to openly release data. We thus present sPlotOpen, the largest open-access dataset of vegetation plots ever released. sPlotOpen can be used to explore global diversity at the plant community level, as ground truth data in remote sensing applications, or as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring.

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are a globally distributed group of soil organisms that play critical roles in ecosystem function. However, the ecological niches of individual AM fungal taxa are poorly understood. We collected > 300 soil samples from natural ecosystems worldwide and modelled the realised niches of AM fungal virtual taxa (VT; approximately species‐level phylogroups). We found that environmental and spatial variables jointly explained VT distribution worldwide, with temperature and pH being the most important abiotic drivers, and spatial effects generally occurring at local to regional scales. While dispersal limitation could explain some variation in VT distribution, VT relative abundance was almost exclusively driven by environmental variables. Several environmental and spatial effects on VT distribution and relative abundance were correlated with phylogeny, indicating that closely related VT exhibit similar niche optima and widths. Major clades within the Glomeraceae exhibited distinct niche optima, Acaulosporaceae generally had niche optima in low pH and low temperature conditions, and Gigasporaceae generally had niche optima in high precipitation conditions. Identification of the realised niche space occupied by individual and phylogenetic groups of soil microbial taxa provides a basis for building detailed hypotheses about how soil communities respond to gradients and manipulation in ecosystems worldwide.

Motivation: Assessing biodiversity status and trends in plant communities is critical for understanding, quantifying and predicting the effects of global change on ecosystems. Vegetation plots record the occurrence or abundance of all plant species co-occurring within delimited local areas. This allows species absences to be inferred, information seldom provided by existing global plant datasets. Although many vegetation plots have been recorded, most are not available to the global research community. A recent initiative, called ‘sPlot’, compiled the first global vegetation plot database, and continues to grow and curate it. The sPlot database, however, is extremely unbalanced spatially and environmentally, and is not open-access. Here, we address both these issues by (a) resampling the vegetation plots using several environmental variables as sampling strata and (b) securing permission from data holders of 105 local-to-regional datasets to openly release data. We thus present sPlotOpen, the largest open-access dataset of vegetation plots ever released. sPlotOpen can be used to explore global diversity at the plant community level, as ground truth data in remote sensing applications, or as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring. Main types of variable contained: Vegetation plots (n = 95,104) recording cover or abundance of naturally co-occurring vascular plant species within delimited areas. sPlotOpen contains three partially overlapping resampled datasets (c. 50,000 plots each), to be used as replicates in global analyses. Besides geographical location, date, plot size, biome, elevation, slope, aspect, vegetation type, naturalness, coverage of various vegetation layers, and source dataset, plot-level data also include community-weighted means and variances of 18 plant functional traits from the TRY Plant Trait Database. Spatial location and grain: Global, 0.01–40,000 m². Time period and grain: 1888–2015, recording dates. Major taxa and level of measuremen

Mycorrhizal inoculation can enhance outcomes of ecological restoration, but the benefits may be context-dependent. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of field studies to elucidate conditions in which adding mycorrhizal fungi enhances restoration success. We found inoculation increased plant biomass by an average effect size of 1.7 in 70 independent comparisons from 26 field-based studies, with the largest increases to N-fixing woody plants, C4-grasses and plants growing in soils with low plant-available P. Growth responses to inoculation increased with time for the first 3 yr after inoculation, especially for N-fixing woody plants and plants growing in severely altered soils. We found that mycorrhizal inoculation increased species richness of restored plant communities by 30%, promoted establishment of target species, and enhanced similarity of restored to reference communities. We conclude that the addition of mycorrhizal fungi to restoration sites can facilitate rapid establishment of vegetation cover, and restoration of diverse plant communities more akin to reference sites.

Distributed environmental research infrastructures are important to support assessments of the effects of global change on landscapes, ecosystems and society. These infrastructures need to provide continuity to address long-term change, yet be flexible enough to respond to rapid societal and technological developments that modify research priorities. We used a horizon scanning exercise to identify and prioritize emerging research questions for the future development of ecosystem and socio-ecological research infrastructures in Europe. Twenty research questions covered topics related to (i) ecosystem structures and processes, (ii) the impacts of anthropogenic drivers on ecosystems, (iii) ecosystem services and socio-ecological systems and (iv), methods and research infrastructures. Several key priorities for the development of research infrastructures emerged. Addressing complex environmental issues requires the adoption of a whole-system approach, achieved through integration of biotic, abiotic and socio-economic measurements. Interoperability among different research infrastructures needs to be improved by developing standard measurements, harmonizing methods, and establishing capacities and tools for data integration, processing, storage and analysis. Future research infrastructures should support a range of methodological approaches including observation, experiments and modelling. They should also have flexibility to respond to new requirements, for example by adjusting the spatio-temporal design of measurements. When new methods are introduced, compatibility with important long-term data series must be ensured. Finally, indicators, tools, and transdisciplinary approaches to identify, quantify and value ecosystem services across spatial scales and domains need to be advanced.

Distributed environmental research infrastructures are important to support assessments of the effects of global change on landscapes, ecosystems and society. These infrastructures need to provide continuity to address long-term change, yet be flexible enough to respond to rapid societal and technological developments that modify research priorities. We used a horizon scanning exercise to identify and prioritize emerging research questions for the future development of ecosystem and socio-ecological research infrastructures in Europe. Twenty research questions covered topics related to (i) ecosystem structures and processes, (ii) the impacts of anthropogenic drivers on ecosystems, (iii) ecosystem services and socio-ecological systems and (iv), methods and research infrastructures. Several key priorities for the development of research infrastructures emerged. Addressing complex environmental issues requires the adoption of a whole-system approach, achieved through integration of biotic, abiotic and socio-economic measurements. Interoperability among different research infrastructures needs to be improved by developing standard measurements, harmonizing methods, and establishing capacities and tools for data integration, processing, storage and analysis. Future research infrastructures should support a range of methodological approaches including observation, experiments and modelling. They should also have flexibility to respond to new requirements, for example by adjusting the spatio-temporal design of measurements. When new methods are introduced, compatibility with important long-term data series must be ensured. Finally, indicators, tools, and transdisciplinary approaches to identify, quantify and value ecosystem services across spatial scales and domains need to be advanced.

Mycorrhizal inoculation can enhance outcomes of ecological restoration, but the benefits may be context-dependent. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of field studies to elucidate conditions in which adding mycorrhizal fungi enhances restoration success. We found inoculation increased plant biomass by an average effect size of 1.7 in 70 independent comparisons from 26 field-based studies, with the largest increases to N-fixing woody plants, C4-grasses and plants growing in soils with low plant-available P. Growth responses to inoculation increased with time for the first 3 yr after inoculation, especially for N-fixing woody plants and plants growing in severely altered soils. We found that mycorrhizal inoculation increased species richness of restored plant communities by 30%, promoted establishment of target species, and enhanced similarity of restored to reference communities. We conclude that the addition of mycorrhizal fungi to restoration sites can facilitate rapid establishment of vegetation cover, and restoration of diverse plant communities more akin to reference sites.

It is debated whether alien plants in new environments benefit from being mycorrhizal and whether widely distributed natives and aliens differ in their associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Here, we compared whether species differing in their origin status, i.e. natives, archaeophytes (alien species introduced before the year 1500) and neophytes (introduced after the year 1500), and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status (obligate, facultative, non-mycorrhizal) differ in their area of occupancy in Germany (i.e. number of occupied grid cells, each ~130km²). We used generalized linear models, incorporating main effects and up to three-way interactions combining AM status, origin status and plant functional traits. The latter were chosen to describe the possible trade-off in carbon allocation either towards the symbiosis or to other plant structures, such as storage organs (significant interactions involving traits were assumed to indicate the existence of such trade-offs). AM status significantly explained the area of occupancy of natives and neophytes - with facultative mycorrhizal species occupying the largest area in both groups - but was less pronounced among archaeophytes. Archaeophytes may have reduced dependency on AM fungi, as they are generally agricultural weeds and the symbiosis potentially becomes obsolete for plants growing in habitats providing a steady provision of nutrients. Trait interactions between AM status and other functional traits were almost exclusively detected for neophytes. While facultative mycorrhizal neophytes benefit from trade-offs with other traits related to high C cost in terms of area of occupancy, such trade-offs were almost absent among natives. This indicates that natives and neophytes benefit differently from the symbiosis and suggests that native AM fungal partners might be less important for neophyte than for native plant species or that more time is required to establish similar relationships between neophytes and native fungal s

Son of Sevenless 1 (SOS1) is a dual guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that activates the small GTPases RAC and RAS. Although the molecular mechanisms of RAS GEF catalysis have been unveiled, how SOS1 acquires RAC GEF activity and what is the physio-pathological relevance of this activity is much less understood. Here we show that SOS1 is tyrosine phosphorylated on Y1196 by ABL. Phosphorylation of Y1196 controls SOS1 inter-molecular interaction, is required to promote the exchange of nucleotides on RAC in vitro and for platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) activation of RAC- and RAC-dependent actin remodeling and cell migration. SOS1 is also phosphorylated on Y1196 by BCR-ABL in chronic myelogenous leukemic cells. Importantly, in these cells, SOS1 is required for BCR-ABL-mediated activation of RAC, cell proliferation and transformation in vitro and in a xenograft mouse model. Finally, genetic removal of Sos1 in the bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) from Sos1 fl/fl mice and infected with BCR-ABL causes a significant delay in the onset of leukemogenesis once BMDCs are injected into recipient, lethally irradiated mice. Thus, SOS1 is required for full transformation and critically contribute to the leukemogenic potential of BCR-ABL.

AimIdentifying the factors that drive large-scale patterns of biotic interaction is fundamental for understanding how communities respond to changing environmental conditions. Mycorrhizal symbiosis is a key interaction between fungi and most vascular plants. Whether plants are obligately (OM) or facultatively (FM) mycorrhizal, and which mycorrhizal type they form – arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM), ectomycorrhizal (ECM), ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM) or non-mycorrhizal (NM) – can have strong implications for plant species distribution at the continental scale and on the responses of plants to environmental gradients.LocationEurope, north of 43° latitude and excluding Russia, Belarus and Moldova.Time periodUndefined.Major taxa studiedVascular plants.MethodsUsing published sources, we compiled the most complete dataset yet of plant mycorrhizal and geographical information for Europe, comprising 1442 plant species. We mapped the European distributions of plant mycorrhizal status (OM and FM) and type (AM, ECM, ERM and NM) and analysed their relationships with climatic, edaphic and plant productivity drivers on a 50 km × 50 km equal-area grid.ResultsThe distribution of mycorrhizal types in Europe was driven by mean temperature, soil pH and productivity. AM plant species predominated throughout the region, but at higher latitudes the share of NM and, to a lesser extent, ECM and ERM species increased. FM species predominated over OM species, and this increased with latitude and was dependent on temperature drivers. The high share of OM species in the central European mountains indicates a possible influence of historical glacial refugia.Main conclusionsOur results challenge the prevailing view of parallel trends in the latitudinal and elevational distribution of mycorrhizal types and demonstrate distinctive responses of plants with different mycorrhizal status to climatic, edaphic and biogeographical drivers at the European scale.

It is still debated whether alien plants benefit from being mycorrhizal, or if engaging in the symbiosis constrains their establishment and spread in new regions. We analyzed the association between mycorrhizal status of alien plant species in Germany and their invasion success. We compared whether the representation of species with different mycorrhizal status (obligate, facultative, or non-mycorrhizal) differed at several stages of the invasion process. We used generalized linear models to explain the occupied geographical range of alien plants, incorporating interactions of mycorrhizal status with plant traits related to morphology, reproduction, and life-history. Non-naturalized aliens did not differ from naturalized aliens in the relative frequency of different mycorrhizal status categories. Mycorrhizal status significantly explained the occupied range of alien plants; with facultative mycorrhizal species inhabiting a larger range than non-mycorrhizal aliens and obligate mycorrhizal plant species taking an intermediate position. Aliens with storage organs, shoot metamorphoses, or specialized structures promoting vegetative dispersal occupied a larger range when being facultative mycorrhizal. We conclude that being mycorrhizal is important for the persistence of aliens in Germany and constitutes an advantage compared to being non-mycorrhizal. Being facultative mycorrhizal seems to be especially advantageous for successful spread, as the flexibility of this mycorrhizal status may enable plants to use a broader set of ecological strategies.

We analysed the spatial distribution patterns of plant species’ arbuscular mycorrhizal status across an intermediate geographical scale (i.e. the country of Germany) and related these distributions to environmental drivers. Three levels of arbuscular mycorrhizal status of plant species could be defined: (1) obligate arbuscular mycorrhizal species that are always colonised by mycorrhizal fungi, (2) facultative arbuscular mycorrhizal species that are colonised under some conditions but not colonised under others and (3) non-mycorrhizal species that are never found to be colonised by mycorrhizal fungi. We aimed to investigate whether plant species assemblages at the studied grid cell scale are composed of different proportions of species regarding their arbuscular mycorrhizal status, and whether the variation of these proportions can be linked to the geographical variation of ecological and environmental factors. We fitted a vector generalised additive model (VGAM) for log-ratios of proportions of plant species’ arbuscular mycorrhizal status per grid cell (2859 grid cells, each c. 130 km2). The spatially explicit plant arbuscular mycorrhizal status distribution model was based on environmental predictors related to climate, geology and land use. The spatial distribution of plant arbuscular mycorrhizal status can be explained as a function of nine environmental predictors (D2 = 0.54). Proportion of obligate arbuscular mycorrhizal plant species per grid cell increased with increasing temperature range, mean annual temperature, urban area and area of lime as geological parent material and decreased with increasing area of mixed forest and coniferous forest. Annual temperature range was by far the most important predictor. These results extend the comparative context of former studies that established relationships between mycorrhizal status and other plant characteristics at species level, including those describing species ecological requiremen