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The article presents short characteristic of bone-carving craft of medieval Azak according to materials of archaeological excavations in 2012–2013. It also suggests criteria for identifying bone-carving workshops at archaeological sites and lists some related difficulties. In the article is given the description of used raw materials and listed range of products. It is noted that quantity of manufacturing wastes on the one hand and blanks and products on the other is incommensurable. Some production techniques are reconstructed based on the traces of processing preserved on waste and blanks. For the first time for Azak a workshop where bone coin scales were produced is discovered. The conclusion is made about rather high qualification of local bone-carvers and it is noted that the ratio of bones from different animals among production wastes is proportional to meat consumption wastes.

The article deals with the materials of the most unusual of the burial grounds of the Golden Horde Azak. It is located on the eastern border of the city's residential area and is part of the chain of the outer arc of necropolises that girdles it and emerged during the reign of Uzbek Khan. The burial ground is located on both sides of the headwaters of the Kirsanova Balka. 154 burials were investigated on 8 excavations. The burials are very shallow. The grave pits do not form rows, but are grouped in clusters. They include burials very different in rite and often cover each other. All possible variants of inhumation are found. The corpse position is equally variable – from stretched out on the back to severely bent over. Grave goods were found in 24% of the burials. Earrings, beads, rings, knuckle-bone, mirrors and their fragments, knives, fire lighter, scissors and ram's bones were found. Such elements of the ritual as the use of fire, copper ongons, ceramics, and fragmentation of mirrors were established. Some of the burials can be classified as Muslim. They do not form individual areas and are not the latest. Coins found in the burials and on the territory of the burial ground allow dating the necropolis to the first half of the XIV century. Only for some burials it is possible to determine the ethnic and cultural affiliation. The burial ground has no analogies among non-Muslim necropolises of large Golden Horde cities of the XIV century.

The paper presents calculation of the population of the Golden Horde Azak and its district based on the analysis of the results of long-term excavations of the Golden Horde Azak. The most reliable data are available for the period around 1340, when the population of the city was 54 thousand inhabitants. To determine the dynamics of the city's development, calculations are also given for the periods around 1290 and 1395, when the city's population was about 3.0-3.5 and 12.5-13.5 thousand inhabitants. The number of nomads in territories economically gravitating towards Azak can be estimated at 250 thousand people, this number is rather an upper limit. The question of the size of the non-nomadic population of the Azak district remains unclear, since even the approximate number of sedentary settlements is unknown, therefore the estimate of more than 300 thousand inhabitants proposed in the article is speculative. Despite the approximate calculations, such studies are necessary for a proper understanding of the history of the Golden Horde. The data presented in this paper will be updated, but the order of the numbers will most likely not change. Based on data on the population of Azak, we can conclude that during its heyday it was one of the largest cities not only in Eastern Europe, but in Europe as a whole. Based on the data on the size of the city, it allows us to conclude that it acted not only as a center of intermediary transcontinental trade, but also as a trade and craft center of a large region. Research similar to that presented in this article should be carried out in the future for other regions of the Golden Horde.

The purpose of the study is to consider the problem of the existence of the Venetian and Genoese trading stations in Tana within the territory of the Golden Horde city of Azak during the internecine war in the Golden Horde between the sons of Toktamysh and Idegei. Through an analysis of sources, an effort is made to determine the circumstances of the attacks of the Golden Horde khans and the level of damage that arose from them. Research materials: Unpublished documents of the State Archives of Venice (Italy), as well as Venetian chronicles and historical works of the 15th–16th centuries. Results and scientific uniqueness: The study of Venetian sources showed that during the second period of turmoil in the Golden Horde which erupted after the defeat of Toktamysh by Tamerlane, Tana trading stations underwent extremely difficult times during the period of the domination of beklerbek Idegei. The point of disagreement between the Tatar khans and the Venetians was the non-payment of a tax for renting land, called terraticum, by the Venetian merchants who traded at the mouth of the Don. The Venetians tried to maneuver between the sons of Toktamysh and the henchmen of Idegei, but since power in the Horde often changed hands at the time, Tana became a hostage in this internecine struggle. In 1410, Tana suffered from an unexpected night raid by Timur Khan and was captured. The damage amounted to between 100,000 and 120,000 ducats. Many Venetian sources tell us about these events, but with great discrepancies in details. Thanks to the inclusion of an important commerce-related source – the protocol of the Venetian judges on petitions – we can determine the exact date of the attack, the name of the khan, and the amount of damage. In 1418, there was an even more devastating second attack on Tana by Khan Kerim-birdi. After that, the Venetian Senate, having comprehensively studied the situation, decided to surround Tana with stone walls and repair its fortifications. Thanks to the erection of strong fortifications at Tana, it was possible for the town to hold out until the Ottoman Turkish conquest in 1475.

The paper considers the 14th century Crimean glazed ceramics with ornithomorphic design made in “sgraffito”, “sgraffito with polychrome coloring” techniques, or a combination of “sgraffito” and “engobe scraping” techniques discovered in the territory of the town of Azov. On the basies of the most preserved items, the following compositions were subdivided, according to the main or key characters, which is a bird: a long-legged bird in tall grass with wings decorated with stylized floral ornament and folded on its back; a large short-legged bird in brushwood with a large expanding tail and plumage designed with rows of scalloped lines; a bird with its wings spread over its back set against the background of spiral-shaped, wavy lines; a procession of birds in a circle, schematically arranged; a small bird widely opening its beak with spread wings over its back with a large elongated object in front of it; a feeding bird arranged inside a hexagon formed by double lines with an ornament between them; a small bird in round medallion with a floral ornament; a bird and a fish with their beak and mouth touching each other. Moreover, the variants of painting of different body parts of the bird, their ornaments, and the elements emphasized by the craftsman: drawn pupils, nasal bone, crest, additional ornaments on the neck, protuberant breast, folded or spread ornamented wings, and other features were also investigated in detail.

The purpose of the study is to compare the history of relations between the early China’s medieval states and the Eastern Roman Empire with Mongols’ policy in relation to the Roman states, and to identify the similarities. The most important sources include the archaeological materials (coins and their imitations, art objects from the territory of China and Mongolia), epigraphy from the Yuan Empire Nestorians burials, Chinese narrative sources data about the “Great Qin and Fulin” as well as references to Mongolian relations with the Roman states work of medieval authors from Asia Minor. Despite the active relationship of the Chinese kingdoms and empires (as well as their northern neighbors, herders) with the Eastern Roman Empire in the early Middle Ages this topic is not widely studied in Russian literature. Meanwhile, on the basis of archaeological and narrative sources (and their mutual criticism) it can be concluded that there are numerous parallels in perception of Byzantium, on the one hand, by the Chinese, and on the other, by the Mongols. Probably one of the reasons for Chingizids very tolerant attitude towards the Romans was the Nestorianism spread (traditionally associated in China with the “Great Qin”, that is the Roman Empire and its successors) north of the Yellow River (including in the Yuan Empire in the 14th c.). Both Chinese in the era of Nanbeichao, Sui and Tang, and the Mongols in the 13th — 14th cc. were (with a few exceptions) positively disposed towards the Eastern Roman Empire (and its fragments like Trebizond and Nicaea). At the same time, of course, due to the common border and Chingizids’ high military potential the latter acted as the “senior” side in this “alliance”.

The paper presents the results of a pottery workshop studies. The workshop was discovered during excavations in the city of Azov on Sotsialistichesky lane, 53 in 2015. It was located in the central area of medieval Azak and was a pottery production complex, consisting of a two-tier kiln and a kiln pit interconnected with a furnace channel. Almost all ceramic material from the filling of the firing chamber were locally produced vessels - products of this workshop. It is represented by one-handle glazed jugs of small and medium size with typical traces of defects (overfiring, cracks, deformations). This workshop had a narrow specialization and small production volume. Judging by stratigraphy and numismatic data, it ceased to function in the beginning of the first decade of the 14th century.

The paper provides data on findings, the analysis of which complements the topography of the Golden Horde city of Azak, indicating the locations of several mosques in its territory. The scarce information from written sources, represented by the works of Ibn-Battuta and Josaphat Barbaro, does not provide a basis for an accurate localization. Archaeological materials come to the rescue. Among them are fragments of stone paste and clay tiles, fragments of mosaics, as well as carved stone slabs, glass lamps, and marble mortars. The finds are concentrated in several locations within the city, some of them accompanying the excavated foundations of the walls and minaret towers. An important role is assigned to specimens of architectural decoration containing inscriptions. The paper features the first translation of the Arabic texts found on the inscriptions. It serves as an additional confirmation of the proximate location of Muslim cult structures. As a result of mapping the finds and excavated parts of the buildings, five places were identified in different parts of the city, where a mosque or madrasah very likely existed.

This work introduces a collection of stone-made architectural details and decorations found in the course of archaeological research of the Golden Horde town of Azak. When analyzing the architectural decorations, the main attention was paid to the search for analogies in the regions which were part of the Azak's trade and cultural relations. The work describes the peculiarities of ornamentation, construction methods and chronological attribution of the complexes where the finds were discovered. Close cultural connections were revealed between the local masters and the builders from the Golden Horde Crimea who, in turn, adopted the traditions from Seljuk architects who moved to the peninsula in the middle of the 13th century. It became possible to identify a local tradition of stone carving with no analogies in other Golden Horde towns and neighboring regions.

The paper provides an overview of Azak archaeology during the last period of its existence, from the end of the ‘Velikaya zamyatnya’ period and its capture by Tokhtamysh to the Timur’s invasion in September 1395. The turmoil resulted in a reduction of the town area, which was at least 4-fold. All urban peripheral areas were abandoned. But Azak still remained a large center according to the Eastern European standards. Most of the town’s burial grounds stopped operating. The town center retained its layout, including the traditional cobbled streets. The density of urban development probably did not change noticeably. Dugout housing disappeared, but large houses with cellars and warehouses still preserved. The number of utility pits significantly decreased. In some cases, city districts were inhabited by the representatives of the same specialization. There was a qualitative leap in the development of the local pottery craft. The variety of local coinage types reached its maximum. Signs of restoration of trade relations with other regions of the Golden Horde are traced, but they did not return to the pre-crisis level. Actually stable links only remained with Crimea and overseas centers. The rural district of Azak preserved, but nothing definitive can be said about its size during that period. Evidence of Timur’s invasion is poorly traced, which especially concerns the burials of murder victims. At the same time, there is no evidence of continued operation of the town after 1395.

The field studies of the early 21st century have provided qualitatively new results. The fundamental information on Ukek is presented with regard to data of the previous years of studies. This includes details of the monument area and the preservation of the cultural layers. It is highlighted that the city used to serve as a crossing site, and the specific terrain relief distinguishing Ukek from the other Golden Horde cities on the Volga was probably reflected in its name. Individual construction traditions and crafts have been determined, as well as the ethnical and confessional composition of the population. According to the ceramic and numismatic materials, the route from Ukek through Azak to Crimea, Constantinople and Trebizond has been identified, and close interrelations with Mohshi have been recorded. Dating of the city’s cultural layers is presented, and the period of maximum administrative prosperity is determined as the one associated with numerous imported articles and the period of the city’s own coinage. This period precedes the time of the city’s maximum dimensions.

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The purpose of the work is to combine all stone Muslim gravestones of the 14th century found during the excavations of the Golden Horde city of Azak. A significant number of publications covers studies of urban and rural necropolises of the Golden Horde cities, including Azak. The publications, in addition to the description of the funerary rite, contain details of the graveside structures. However, the studies are mainly focused on the description of epigraphic inscriptions on gravestones. Their architectural design often falls out of the researchers’ field of interest. In this work, attention is paid to both the epigraphy and the stylistic features of gravestone design. As noted by the authors, the design of Azak gravestones clearly traces the influence of Asia Minor region’s traditions of the Seljuk period. But unlike the finds from Turkey, the gravestones of Azak and the Crimean cities are less ornamented and schematically decorated. The study of stone monuments, including gravestones, allowes to identify the cultural, economic and religious processes that took place in Azak, as well as to determine the origins of certain artistic traditions of different regions of the Golden Horde.

The article proposes to discuss the issue of grain processing and the development of flour milling in the cities of the Golden Horde. Using the example of the archaeological research of the city of Madzhar and the materials obtained during the archaeological work in the city of Azak, as well as drawing on medieval sources, the need for this production among the nomadic population, traveling merchants, ambassadors and missionaries is also considered.

The article describes the development of the rural district of Azak, the mutual interaction between the city and its rural settlements. The subject of consideration is the ceramic complex of rural settlements, its structure, and the peculiarities of the pottery craft development in small towns and villages. The intensity of contacts of rural settlements with the center and the property wealth of the population of the periphery are also estimated. These data complement the numismatic findings, which allow us to determine the degree of retail trade development in rural settlements, as well as to clarify the important question of the time of disappearance of the rural district of Azak by the end of the 1st quarter of the 15th century. Other categories of materials (weapons, jewelry and costume parts, agricultural equipment, sphragistics) are briefly described. The data of archaeology and written sources are also compared in this research. Conclusions are drawn about the cultural proximity of the rural and ordinary urban population of Azak, about the free population living in the territory of the rural district of Azak with average property wealth, about the synchronicity of the city and its district disappearance.

(En) This сeramological research is devoted to a very rare type of marble-like decorated glazed pottery –«Polychrome Marble Ware» – that was discovered during archaeological excavations between 1961 and 2015 in the Ottoman fortress of Azak in the North-East Azov region, Southern Russia. This provided the first possibility to identify and study fragments of this tableware, which are now stored in the stock collections of Azov History, Archaeology and Paleontology Museum-Reserve. The authors of this ceramological research set themselves the following tasks: to study the history of the origin of the Ottoman «Polychrome Marble Ware»; to determine the centers of its production and the time of its existence,; as well as to define and classify the types and forms of these vessels, which were encountered during excavations in the Turkish fortress of Azak, by finding analogies in other archaeological sites of the Ottoman time. The research results are reflected in four sections of this article. In our opinion, most of the «Polychrome Marble Ware» was brought to the Turkish fortress Azak from Anatolia, where it was produced in the 17th–18th centuries. Among this assemblage, there is clearly also pottery from the coast of the Marmara Sea and the South-East Crimea. Crimean potters, apparently, imitated Italian and Malaysian tableware with marble decor that was then fashionable. (Ar) يهتم هذا البحث بدراسة نوع نادر جدًا من الفخار المطلى متعدد الألوان على شكل الرخام «Polychrome Marble Ware» والذى تم اكتشافه خلال أعمال الحفر والتنقيب الأثرية فى جنوب روسيا بين عامى1961 و 2015م فى قلعة آزاك العثمانية فى منطقة شمال شرق آزوف، وتعتبر هذه الدراسة من الدراسات النادرة فى روسيا التى تلقى الضوء على أهمية تلك الأوانى والشقافات الفخارية المحفوظة فى مجموعات بمخازن متحف آزوف للتاريخ والآثار وعلم الحفريات. وقد اهتم الباحثين خلال الدراسة العلمية الآثارية بتأريخ وتأصيل شقافات الفخار المطلى متعدد الألوان، وتحديد مراكز الإنتاج وتاريخ الصناعة، وكذلك تحديد وتصنيف أنواع وأشكال هذه الأوانى الفخارية التى تم اكتشافها أثناء التنقيب فى قلعة آزاك التركية، ومحاولة خلق نوع من المقارنة مع مكتشفات مواقع أثرية أخرى من العصر العثمانى. تلك المحاولات التى تم التوصل من خلالها إلى أن معظم الأوانى الفخارية متعددة الألوان على شكل الرخام –موضوع الدراسة- تم جلبها إلى قلعة آزاك التركية من الأناضول حيث تم إنتاجها خلال القرنين (11-12هـ/ 17-18م). كما تم التوصل إلى وجود نوع جديد من الفخار المطلى مجلوب من ساحل بحر مرمرة وجنوب شرق شبه جزيرة القرم، وعلى مايبدو أن خزافى القرم قاموا بتقليد الأوانى الفخارية الإيطالية والماليزية ذات الزخارف الرخامية والتى كانت منتشرة لديهم فى ذلك الوقت.

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The material of bone items discovered during the excavations of the Golden Horde time in Bolgar’s central part has been examined using the methodological technique worked out in the Laboratory of the Natural Scientific Methods, Archaeology Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The most commonly used material among the bone items studied was animal bone. Its share is about 60 %. Another 30 % are items made of antler. These types of materials for the items along with teeth of domestic and wild mammalia, bird and fish bone were of the local origin and acquired from the animals living in the forest-steppe. A number of items made of unusual imported bone material, large mammalia teeth, have been found. A pendant made of an inhabitant’s of the Eastern Siberia forests, male Siberian musk deer’s canine (lat. Moschus moschiferus) has been found. It was the first time walrus tusk (lat. Odobenus rosmarus) items were encountered at the Bolgar settlement. An arrowhead with an inscription and a bone seal, both made of this material, can be considered as items marking their owner’s high social status. The material of the well-known in the Golden Horde archaeology ornate bone quiver plaques from Bolgar and Azaq was attributed for the first time. It has been established that the central ornamental area plaques were made of the elephant tusk (lat. - Elephantidae) external layer. The discussed exotic materials were imported to the Golden Horde area from remote regions of Eurasia. It has been suggested and proven that this expensive and “exotic” material could be processed in well-equipped town workshops, which specialized not only in bone carving but also in glassblowing and jewelcrafting.

Azov Fortress, which came under the Ottoman rule in 1475, was the farthest point of the north-eastern border of the Ottoman lands. The fortress, which is located in the border area, was mostly used as an outpost, military support unit and supply base since it was not subjected to serious attacks in the first years. The Azov was subjected to sieges in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. However, for the first time in 1637, as a result of the serious siege of the Don Cossacks, it was out of the Ottoman's control. It is has a special place in Russian history that the Don Cossacks occupied and held Azov for a long time because it was a victory against the Ottoman Empire which was the great power of its era. There are many studies on this subject in Russian literature. While there are very few documents in the Ottoman archive, Evliya Celebi gives the most detailed information among chronicles and travel books. In addition, this period was neglected in the studies and research, and only recently, a study was conducted by Sinan Yüksel in terms of political history. In this respect, it is thought to be useful to discuss the subject in detail due to the existing gap in the literature. In this study, the Don Cossacks' capture of Azov and the struggles between the Ottoman soldiers and the Don Cossacks during the Don Cossacks' domination, will be discussed in detail by means of military terms. Besides, the reasons why the Ottoman Empire failed in Azov during this period will be examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Çalışma, Ukrayna Kazaklarının, özellikle Ataman Dmytro Vyshnevetsky’nin faaliyetleriyle ilgilidir. Osmanlı hükumenitinin Ukrayna Kazaklarının Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Kırım Hanlığı’na karşı yürüttüğü faaliyetlerin dur- durulması istikametindeki politikaları değerlendirilmektedir. Bu doğrultuda, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, Moskof Çarlığı ve Polonya krallıkları arasında XVI. Yüzyılın ikinci yarısında cereyan eden ilişkiler analiz edilmektedir. Kazaklar ve Kuzey Kafkasya halkları arasındaki gerçek ilişkiler ve Avrupa’da sosyal ve kültürel fenomen olarak Ukrayna Kazaklarının öneminin artmasında tarihsel faktörlerin baş rolü oynadığı düşünülmektedir.

With the Russian occupation of Azov Castle in 1696, the Ottoman Empire faced a serious threat to the domination of the Black Sea, which it has long regarded as its inland sea. The Ottoman administration was aware of the strategic importance of the Azov Sea and sought to imprison Russia here. In this direction, the Ottomans repaired the chain of fortresses, which were important defense lines starting from Ochakov to Crimea and Caucasus, in order to prevent Russia from going further south. New castles have been built on the Kerch Strait, the Crimea and Taman sides, the most critical passage Russia could use to reach the Black Sea. Yenikale was one of these castles, it was built at Akintiburnu, 10 km north of Kerch Castle. The construction of the castle started in 1702 and continued until 1707 with some intervals. Thus, it was tried to prevent Russia's exit from Azov Sea to Karadeniz. In this paper, the importance of Yenikale, which was built on the Kerch Strait in order to prevent the spread of Russians, will be given information about the construction process and the money spent in this period, manpower and materials used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Тhe Golden Horde khan Bek-Bulat’s reign is still representing the subject of debate despite both the fact that the name of this Jochid often occurs in the pages of historical and numismatic researches and the existence of separate research articles devoted to him and his coins. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the political career of Bek-Bulat according to written and numismatic sources. Its objective is to reasonably present the chronology of his reign (including consideration of the issue of his “first” reign). Materials and methodology of the present study. The article contains high-quality enlarged images of the dangs of this khan with metrology (most of these images have been introduced into the academic circulation for the first time). The author uses these images as sources for reconstruction (or reconstruction’s verification) of historical events and identifies the main types of Bek-Pulad’s silver coins including a previously unknown type of this khan’s dangs with a designation of minting place in Saray al-Jadid. The author analyzes the type of Azak mint’s dangs with spelling of the khan’s name as “Bulad”. He reads their date as 793 AH and dates this emission back to the beginning of Bek-Bulat’s reign. Results of the study. Oglan Bek-Bulat commanded the Tokhtamish’s troops in 1386 and 1391. After the defeat of the Golden Horde army in the Battle of the Kondurcha River, in summer 1391 Bek-Bulat was proclaimed a khan. The ensuing war between Tokhtamish and Bek-Bulat lasted quite a long time and ended with the death of the latter in the Crimea. Conclusions. The author dates the reign of Bek-Pulad back to 793–794 AH (approxi­mately the middle of 1391 – mid–1392 AD). Other dates indicated by scholars are based on the incorrect use of numismatic material. The question of the “first” reign of Bek-Bulat still remains open.

The province of Kefe (Caffa) was one of the Ottoman frontier provinces and played an important role in the Ottoman relations with Moscow and Bakhchisaray. One duty of the governor of Kefe was to control the Crimean khan and inform the Ottoman central authorities about the situation in the Crimea. Azak (Azov) belonged to the province of Kefe and, as an important frontier fortress, enjoyed special rights and privileges. Kefe and Azak were transit points for Muscovite envoys and merchants on their way to Istanbul, and their governors typically acted as the 'ears and eyes' of the sultan in regard to Muscovy and the Don Cossacks. Based on primary sources, this article examines the correspondence of the governors of Kefe and Azak with Moscow and discusses their impact on the Ottoman-Muscovite relations. Special attention is devoted to the titulature used by the Ottoman provincial governors in their letters addressed to the tsar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia, after emerging as a state at the turn of the 15th century, started to expand eastward. Until the 17th century, Russia made an effort to not come across by the Ottoman Empire who is the important power of that period. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in Vienna in 1683, Russia changed her traditional policy and she also attended to the war near Austria, Poland and Venice. After occupying Azov, she reached the Black Sea coast. After Austria, Poland and Venice signed the treaty with the Ottoman Empire, the treaty of Istanbul with Russia will be examined in this article. At the end of the article, the full text of the treaty will be given in the Ottoman Turkish and its transcription in Latin letters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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