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Regulated hunting of large carnivores as a management tool is a contentious topic. We report the results of two public mail‐back surveys conducted using stratified random sampling to assess Colorado residents' opinions about hunting mountain lions (ML; n = 462) and black bears (BB; n = 458). After weighting the samples to be representative of state population demographics (i.e., age, gender, level of urbanization, geographical region, and hunting participation), we found that the approval of legal and regulated hunting of MLs and BBs was polarized and varied among stakeholder groups and hunting purposes. Most residents, to varying extents, disapproved of hunting for trophy (ML 77.9%; BB 85.6%), hide or fur (80.6%; 75.2%), and recreation (62.7%; 67.0%). Over three‐fourths disapproved of hunting MLs with dogs (88.2%) and electronic calls (75.2%). Moreover, hierarchical regression results revealed that men, hunters, and those who identified as Republican or Republican‐leaning showed more support for hunting. Also, mutualism wildlife value orientation was negatively related to hunting approval, whereas domination value orientation was positively linked. Understanding public perspectives on these issues can enable the social context of wildlife management to be considered in decision‐making, thereby improving large carnivore management outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bear management in New Jersey is controversial. The Division of Fish and Wildlife's policies have not reassured factions who oppose their tools, namely hunting, despite being informed by science. This study applies qualitative content analysis to 43 policy documents to understand how actors pursue policy objectives, and how they are shaped. I find that actors pursue their policy objectives by making hybrid arguments that, in addition to science, involve history, values, and institutional power. Thus, they make scientific claims—or claims to what the science might mean—that are incompatible with each other. This study identifies four ways in which this occurs: science gets framed, science gets applied to certain ends, science gets weaponized, and science gets minimized. Comprehending the ways in which these factors supplement and frame science could reduce conflict, improve communication, and build consensus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in the lymphoblasts and leukocytes of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) have been reported to be downregulated compared to in controls. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and low ATP turnover has been reported in the state of hypometabolism associated with human MDD and with mammalian hibernation due to suppression of mitochondrial metabolism. Similarities have been noted between many state-dependent neurobiological changes associated with MDD in humans and with mammalian hibernation. Methods: To compare cAMP levels between human MDD and mammalian hibernation and to investigate whether cAMP downregulation is another statedependent neurobiological finding, we measured cAMP concentrations in lysed leukocytes, plasma, and serum in serial blood specimens from nine female captive black bears (Ursus americanus; CBBs), and cortisol levels in serum from 10 CBBs. Results: Cortisol levels were significantly higher during hibernation in CBBs, confirming previous findings in hibernating black bears and similar to findings in humans with MDD. cAMP levels were significantly lower during hibernation versus active states (pre-hibernation and exit from hibernation) and were similar to the cAMP downregulation reported in MDD patients versus euthymic patients or controls. cAMP level changes during the different states (hibernation, prehibernation, active) confirm their state-dependent status. Discussion: These findings are similar to the neurobiological findings associated with the hypometabolism (metabolic depression) observed during mammalian hibernation and reported during MDD. A sudden increase in cAMP levels was observed before entrance into pre-hibernation and during exit from hibernation. Further investigation is suggested into the possible role of elevated cAMP levels in initiation of the chain reaction of changes in gene expression, proteins, and enzymes leading to the suppression of mitochondrial metabolism and to low ATP turnover. This process leads to hypometabolism, the old adaptive mechanism that is used by organisms for energy preservation and is associated with both mammalian hibernation and human MDD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionCyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in the lymphoblasts and leukocytes of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) have been reported to be downregulated compared to in controls. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and low ATP turnover has been reported in the state of hypometabolism associated with human MDD and with mammalian hibernation due to suppression of mitochondrial metabolism. Similarities have been noted between many state-dependent neurobiological changes associated with MDD in humans and with mammalian hibernation.MethodsTo compare cAMP levels between human MDD and mammalian hibernation and to investigate whether cAMP downregulation is another state-dependent neurobiological finding, we measured cAMP concentrations in lysed leukocytes, plasma, and serum in serial blood specimens from nine female captive black bears (Ursus americanus; CBBs), and cortisol levels in serum from 10 CBBs.ResultsCortisol levels were significantly higher during hibernation in CBBs, confirming previous findings in hibernating black bears and similar to findings in humans with MDD. cAMP levels were significantly lower during hibernation versus active states (pre-hibernation and exit from hibernation) and were similar to the cAMP downregulation reported in MDD patients versus euthymic patients or controls. cAMP level changes during the different states (hibernation, pre-hibernation, active) confirm their state-dependent status.DiscussionThese findings are similar to the neurobiological findings associated with the hypometabolism (metabolic depression) observed during mammalian hibernation and reported during MDD. A sudden increase in cAMP levels was observed before entrance into pre-hibernation and during exit from hibernation. Further investigation is suggested into the possible role of elevated cAMP levels in initiation of the chain reaction of changes in gene expression, proteins, and enzymes leading to the suppression of mitochondrial metabolism and to low ATP turnover. This process leads to hypometabolism, the old adaptive mechanism that is used by organisms for energy preservation and is associated with both mammalian hibernation and human MDD.

Improper food storage fuels human-bear conflicts in parks and protected areas around the globe. Bear-resistant food storage canisters provide an extremely effective solution for reducing food-related human-bear conflicts, especially for overnight visitors in backcountry settings. However, the success of this intervention depends on recreationists' willingness to use and comply with such food storage methods. This study used internet-based surveys to identify Appalachian Trail backpackers' attitudes, norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions regarding the use of bear canisters through an application of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Results indicate attitudes and subjective norms provide potential leverage points for messaging under voluntary conditions; messaging incorporating attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control may help influence food storage behavior under required conditions. Specific recommendations for effective, theorybased interpretation strategies aimed at reducing human-black bear conflicts on the Appalachian Trail are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Glacier bears are a rare grey color morph of American black bear (Ursus americanus) found only in northern Southeast Alaska and a small portion of western Canada. We examine contemporary genetic population structure of black bears within the geographic extent of glacier bears and explore how this structure relates to pelage color and landscape features of a recently glaciated and highly fragmented landscape. We used existing radiocollar data to quantify black bear home‐range size within the geographic range of glacier bears. The mean home‐range size of female black bears in the study area was 13 km2 (n = 11), whereas the home range of a single male was 86.9 km2. We genotyped 284 bears using 21 microsatellites extracted from noninvasively collected hair as well as tissue samples from harvested bears. We found ten populations of black bears in the study area, including several new populations not previously identified, divided largely by geographic features such as glaciers and marine fjords. Glacier bears were assigned to four populations found on the north and east side of Lynn Canal and the north and west side of Glacier Bay with a curious absence in the nonglaciated peninsula between. Lack of genetic relatedness and geographic continuity between black bear populations containing glacier bears suggest a possible unsampled population or an association with ice fields. Further investigation is needed to determine the genetic basis and the adaptive and evolutionary significance of the glacier bear color morph to help focus black bear conservation management to maximize and preserve genetic diversity.

Human-dominated landscapes contain fragmented natural land cover interspersed throughout an urban matrix. Animals that occupy human-dominated landscapes often grow and reproduce differently than conspecifics. Female American black bears (Ursus americanus) produce litters for the first time usually at age 4 years; 2-year-olds rarely give birth. We visited winter bear dens and trapped bears in spring and summer to compare the reproductive output and weight of female black bears within the city limits of Asheville, North Carolina, and three forested rural sites in North Carolina and Virginia representative of the undeveloped habitat of Asheville. Urban yearling females weighed nearly double (45.0 kg ± 8.1 [± SD ]; n = 36) that of yearling females from the three rural study sites (23.2 ± 8.5 [Pisgah], 23.6 ± 8.3 [Virginia SW], and 23.9 ± 9.7 [Virginia NW]; n = 95). Across all sites, hard mast production during the autumn, when females were cubs, did not affect their weights as yearlings. Seven of 12 (58%) 2-year-old urban bears produced 11 cubs (mean litter size = 1.6 ± 0.8), but no 2-year-old rural females produced cubs. Production of hard mast in the autumn, when females were yearlings, did not influence cub production by 2-year-old female bears at the urban site. We hypothesize that reproduction by 2-year-old bears is linked to the availability of anthropogenic food sources associated with urban environments. To inform population level management decisions, managers and researchers should quantify urban food sources and the effects on black bear life history. If high fecundity allows urban populations to sustain relatively high mortality rates, then urban bear populations may be source populations for surrounding, rural areas. Alternately, if reproduction in urban populations cannot match high time-specific or age-specific urban mortality rates, then urban populations may be sinks for the surrounding areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conserving large carnivores while keeping people safe depends on finding means for peaceful coexistence. Although large carnivore populations are generally declining globally, some populations are increasing, causing greater overlap with humans and increasing potential for conflict. One method of reducing conflict with large carnivores is to secure attractants like garbage and livestock. This method is effective when implemented; however, implementation requires a change in human behavior. Human‐wildlife interaction is a public good collective action problem where solutions require contributions from many and individual actions have effects on others. We used the collective interest model to investigate how individual and collective factors work in concert to influence landowner attractant securing behavior in Montana, USA, in black (Ursus americanus) and grizzly bear (U. arctos) range. We used data from a mail‐back survey to develop logistic regression models testing the relative effects of collective and individual factors on landowners' attractant securing behaviors. The most important factor was whether individuals had spoken to a wildlife professional, a reflection of social coordination and pressure. Other collective factors (e.g., social norms [i.e., expectations and behaviors of peers] and the existence of discussion networks [i.e., how much social influence an individual has]) were equally important as individual factors (e.g., beliefs, age, gender) for influencing attractant securing behavior among Montana landowners. This research suggests pathways for wildlife managers and outreach coordinators to increase attractant securing behavior by emphasizing collective factors, such as social norms, rather than appealing exclusively to individual factors, such as risk perception of large carnivores. Furthermore, wildlife agencies would be justified in increasing their efforts to connect with landowners in person and to connect with members of the public who play an important role in discussion networks. This research demonstrates that, even on private lands, collective interests may be a missing and important piece of the puzzle for encouraging voluntary attractant securing behavior and improving wildlife‐human coexistence. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. : Collective social factors, like social norms, influence uptake in human behaviors to secure items, like garbage and livestock, that can attract large carnivores. Managers seeking to encourage the public to secure carnivore attractants as a method for preventing conflict and improving coexistence with wildlife may benefit from applying collective action insights in their messaging and outreach strategies. For example, outreach campaigns that include a normative appeal, such as information about the expectations and behaviors of one's peers, may be more effective than campaigns that include carnivore risk information alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In human-dominated landscapes throughout the world, wildlife seek out anthropogenic foods because they are high in nutritional value and are consistently available. To investigate this mode of foraging, some researchers use stable isotope analysis to detect these animals in populations and estimate their individual diets. In this study, we develop an integrative approach to measure the proportion of corn, a C4 plant, in the diets of free-ranging mammalian omnivores in C3-dominated ecosystems. We fed captive mice corn, C3 plants, and meat until carbon stable isotopes (δ 13C) from each diet equilibrated in their hair. We then used carbon discrimination factors (Δ 13C; offsets between stable isotope values of consumer tissues and their foods) for mice from these feeding trials and a simple carbon stable isotope mixing model to estimate the corn-based diets of free-ranging American black bears in Wisconsin and brown bears in Slovenia. We used Δ 13C factors for mice to estimate the diets of bears because mouse models are used commonly to study mammalian diet and health, including humans and bears, and body mass has no effect on carbon discrimination factors in monogastric mammalian omnivores. In this study, we found that mice grew fastest, largest, and δ 13C values equilibrated quickest in the hair of mice fed meat versus plant-based diets, suggesting protein quantity (quality was the same) has an effect on Δ 13C. Evidence also suggests that Δ 13C did not increase with animal growth rate as all mice grew throughout the 109-day feeding trials, but isotopic equilibration occurred early while mice still were subadults and was maintained throughout their adult lives. We also found that Δ 13C was highest and most variable in the hair, serum, and liver, of mice fed a mixed diet of C3 plants, supporting our mixed diet hypothesis that states that Δ 13C varies more among tissues of animals fed mixed diets than animals fed nonmixed diets because the former are composed of multiple foods, each with different macromolecular and isotopic compositions. Lastly, we found that corn may have been a more important component of bear diets in Wisconsin than previously thought (adults: x ¯ = 29%; x ¯ = 33%; subadults: x ¯ = 22%; x ¯ = 28%), and male brown bears may have fed on 50% more corn (⁠ x ¯ = 47% versus 31%) in autumn during a year when beechnut availability was low. In a world that is rapidly changing, it is more important than ever to develop the appropriate quantitative tools to measure the impact people have on wildlife. Here, we provide such a tool for monogastric mammalian omnivores and encourage other researchers to do the same for other taxa of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicts between people and wild animals are increasing globally, often with serious consequences for both. Local regulations or ordinances are frequently used to promote human behaviors that minimize these conflicts (risk‐reducing behaviors), but compliance with ordinances can be highly variable. While efforts to increase compliance could be improved through applications of conservation psychology, little is known about the relative influence of different factors motivating compliance. Using concepts from psychology and risk theory, we conducted a longitudinal study pairing data from mail surveys with direct observations of compliance with a wildlife ordinance requiring residents to secure residential garbage from black bears (Ursus americanus). We assessed the relative influence of beliefs and attitudes toward bears and bear proofing, perceived behavioral control, perceived risks and benefits assigned to bears, norms, trust in management, previous experience with conflicts, and demographics on compliance behavior (i.e., bear proofing). Data on previous experience were obtained through direct observation and survey reports. We found that higher compliance rates were associated with more observed conflicts on a respondent's block. Counter to expectations, however, residents were less compliant when they were more trusting of the management agency and perceived more benefits from bears. We suggest that messages have the potential to increase compliance when they empower residents by linking successful management of conflicts to individual actions and emphasize how reducing conflicts could maintain benefits provided by wildlife. Modifying existing educational materials to account for these psychological considerations and evaluating their impact on compliance behavior over time are important next steps in changing human behaviors relevant to the globally important problem of human‐wildlife conflict. Article Impact Statement: Compliance with wildlife ordinances may increase if conflict reduction links to individual action and maintenance of benefits from wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacier bears are a rare grey color morph of American black bear (Ursus americanus) found only in northern Southeast Alaska and a small portion of western Canada. We examine contemporary genetic population structure of black bears within the geographic extent of glacier bears and explore how this structure relates to pelage color and landscape features of a recently glaciated and highly fragmented landscape. We used existing radiocollar data to quantify black bear home‐range size within the geographic range of glacier bears. The mean home‐range size of female black bears in the study area was 13 km2 (n = 11), whereas the home range of a single male was 86.9 km2. We genotyped 284 bears using 21 microsatellites extracted from noninvasively collected hair as well as tissue samples from harvested bears. We found ten populations of black bears in the study area, including several new populations not previously identified, divided largely by geographic features such as glaciers and marine fjords. Glacier bears were assigned to four populations found on the north and east side of Lynn Canal and the north and west side of Glacier Bay with a curious absence in the nonglaciated peninsula between. Lack of genetic relatedness and geographic continuity between black bear populations containing glacier bears suggest a possible unsampled population or an association with ice fields. Further investigation is needed to determine the genetic basis and the adaptive and evolutionary significance of the glacier bear color morph to help focus black bear conservation management to maximize and preserve genetic diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black bears (Ursus americanus) are commonly exposed to Toxoplasma gondii. However, there are no reports of exposure or infection with T. gondii in black bears from Oklahoma. The purpose of our project was to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies in black bears collected in Oklahoma. Additionally, since only serum was available from these bears, we sought to determine if DNA extraction and PCR amplification for T. gondii was possible on serum samples from bears with positive titers. Seroprevalence was determined using modified agglutination test (MAT). Serum was collected from 44 live-trapped bears in southeastern Oklahoma; 32 (73% ± 58–84%) had antibodies against T. gondii. Seroprevalence in adult bears (85% ± 67–95%) was significantly higher (p = 0.028) than yearlings (33.0% ± 56–80%). Adult bears were 3.4 times more likely to have antibodies to T. gondii than yearlings. From the bears with positive titers, T. gondii DNA was detected in 12 of the 32 seropositive samples by PCR of the B1 gene, with two of the samples showing variation in two nucleotide positions when compared with available sequences. Multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping of these 12 samples revealed three ToxoDB genotypes, including #2 (type III, haplogroup 3), #4 (type XII, haplogroup 12), and #74 (haplogroup 12). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of T. gondii seroprevalence in black bears from Oklahoma. Our results indicate that exposure and infection with T. gondii in black bears from Oklahoma is common. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gray wolf populations have exceeded anticipated recovery levels since they were first reintroduced to central Idaho in 1995. Although wolf predation on livestock is a relatively minor issue to the livestock industry as a whole, it can be a serious problem for some individual livestock producers who graze their stock in occupied wolf habitat. This paper compares Idaho population estimates for gray wolves with the available information on numbers of livestock killed by wolves in order to estimate numbers of livestock killed per wolf. This information is compared with similar analyses for other species most commonly implicated as predators of livestock in Idaho (coyotes, black bears, and mountain lions). Population estimates for coyotes, black bears, and mountain lions are based on review of available scientific literature and analyses in environmental assessments prepared by Wildlife Services, as well as estimates from the Idaho Department of Fish and Game. Wolf population estimates are based primarily on monitoring information provided by the Idaho Department of Fish and Game and the Nez Perce Tribe. Estimates of numbers of livestock killed by wolves, coyotes, black bears, and mountain lions are based on survey data compiled by the National Agricultural Statistics Service. Rationale for use of various data sets is provided, and limitations of the data are discussed. This analysis suggests that individual wolves are much more likely to prey on livestock than are individuals of any other predator species in Idaho.

Black bears and other wildlife species are impacted by highway systems and associated traffic loads in many ways. There is growing concern among government natural resource agencies, environmental groups and transportation agencies over the effects of roads on wildlife. Roads often cross animal travel corridors. Use of these corridors is difficult to monitor, and various methods have been devised to determine specific crossing points. I am using barbed wire stretched along a section of highway at a proposed expansion site to determine if bears cross the existing roadbed at predictable places at different times of the year. Also, hair samples collected from the wire will be subjected to DNA fingerprinting to determine the number of individuals crossing the road, how many times an individual crosses, and the sex of these individuals. Highway planners may then use these data to place bridges or culverts in places where bears and other species will use them. This study has only recently begun, but initial results are very promising. It may likely prove useful for monitoring travel corridor use of other species besides bears. Funding source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Total budget: $50K/year for two years Project period: June 2000-June 2002

Developing the capacity to predict black bear (Ursus americanus; bear) activity in a diversity of habitats will help conserve bear populations and their habitats and minimize human–bear conflicts. This capacity will be particularly important in areas that provide bear habitat and offer backcountry hiking and camping experiences. Bryce Canyon National Park (BRCA), located on the edge of the Paunsaugunt Plateau in southern Utah, USA, provides important bear habitat and offers visitors 12 backcountry campsites. To effectively manage these areas to minimize human–bear conflicts, park managers will need better information about black bear use of these campsites and other anthropogenic features in the BRCA. From 2014–2016, we studied the nature and frequency of bear activity within BRCA, with an emphasis on bear–campsite relationships, by analyzing bear activity data using radio-collared bears, remote camera monitoring of areas containing features of interest, campsite assessments, and analysis of human–bear interaction reports. We further assessed and ranked each backcountry campsite regarding its bear habitat quality, bear displacement potential, and human–bear conflict potential. Model selection showed bear preference for campsites and springs and avoidance of trails and roads. During site assessments, we identified a number of modifications to existing campsites that may help minimize human– bear interactions. Foremost among these changes is the relocation of campsites farther off-trail to avoid bears using trails. Specifically, we recommend that campsites be no closer than 200 m to permanent water sources. Finally, while the park requires the use of bear-resistant food containers, we recommend backcountry visitors also be encouraged to carry bear spray.

In the 1980s, black bears (Ursus americanus) began expanding into historic habitats in northwestern Nevada, USA. Over a period of >30 years, black bears recolonized areas where human populations have also increased. Our research represents one of, if not the longest-running and earliest comparative studies of a black bear population at wildland–urban interface and wildland areas in North America. As the population increased, we observed: 1) increasing human–bear conflicts in areas where several generations of people had lived in almost total absence of bears (70–80+ years); 2) changes in attitudes by the public toward bears and in the social realm regarding garbage management; and 3) changes in the demographics, behavior, and ecology of this bear population, due to an increasing human footprint on the landscape. Herein, we discuss a few of the lessons learned from this long-term study and the value of a collaborative approach between a state agency, a university, and an international conservation organization. Our collaborative approach allowed us to better understand the ecological, demographic, and behavioral changes in a large, recolonizing carnivore that is a functional omnivore, often residing at the wildland-urban interface, and to use these data to impact conservation and management. Throughout the study, our data were used extensively by various media, emphasizing public education about human–bear conflicts. This media platform proved important because of the impact it had on wildlife conservation. For example, partly in response to media coverage of our data-based education efforts, 3 Nevada counties enacted garbage management ordinances, and the Nevada legislature passed a state law prohibiting the feeding of large game mammals. Further, several million dollars in bear-resistant garbage containers are now used in the region by the public and government entities. The end result of these conservation measures has been a recolonization of the Great Basin Desert by bears from the Lake Tahoe Basin and Sierra-Nevada Range into portions of Nevada where bears have been absent for >80 years.

Although bear-inflicted (Ursus spp.) human fatalities are rare in North America, human injuries, property damage, and bear mortalities occur wherever bears and humans commingle. We investigated the efficacy of portable electric fencing systems for bear deterrence under a variety of environmental conditions in the lab and field. Our results showed that the bear deterrent systems we evaluated were effective in protecting humans, their food, and property from bears >99% of the time. Herein, we discuss the benefits of using electric fencing, reasons why fences sometimes fail, and provide guidance regarding the most effective implementation of the systems we evaluated. Lastly, we also explore why this deterrent is not yet in widespread use. We encourage the use of electric fencing in bear country for protecting humans, their camping gear and food, and ultimately to promote bear conservation.

Developing the capacity to predict black bear (Ursus americanus; bear) activity in a diversity of habitats will help conserve bear populations and their habitats and minimize human--bear conflicts. This capacity will be particularly important in areas that provide bear habitat and offer backcountry hiking and camping experiences. Bryce Canyon National Park (BRCA), located on the edge of the Paunsaugunt Plateau in southern Utah, USA, provides important bear habitat and offers visitors 12 backcountry campsites. To effectively manage these areas to minimize human--bear conflicts, park managers will need better information about black bear use of these campsites and other anthropogenic features in the BRCA. From 2014-2016, we studied the nature and frequency of bear activity within BRCA, with an emphasis on bear--campsite relationships, by analyzing bear activity data using radiocollared bears, remote camera monitoring of areas containing features of interest, campsite assessments, and analysis of human--bear interaction reports. We further assessed and ranked each backcountry campsite regarding its bear habitat quality, bear displacement potential, and human--bear conflict potential. Model selection showed bear preference for campsites and springs and avoidance of trails and roads. During site assessments, we identified a number of modifications to existing campsites that may help minimize human--bear interactions. Foremost among these changes is the relocation of campsites farther off-trail to avoid bears using trails. Specifically, we recommend that campsites be no closer than 200 m to permanent water sources. Finally, while the park requires the use of bear-resistant food containers, we recommend backcountry visitors also be encouraged to carry bear spray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • This is the first investigation on ursid gammaherpesvirus infection in black bears in US. • The black bear herpesvirus is capable of replication in HrT-18G cells in vitro and produced CPE like herpesvirus infections. • The black bear herpesvirus can be detected frequently in spleens and lymph nodes in bears with and without neurological symptoms. • The DNA polymerase gene sequences of black bear herpesviruses have 94-95% identity to UrHV-1 DNA polymerase gene sequences. Abstract Herpesvirus infection was investigated in black bears (Ursus americanus) with neurological signs and brain lesions of nonsuppurative encephalitis of unknown cause. Visible cytopathic effects (CPE) could only be observed on days 3–5 post-infection in HrT-18G cell line inoculated with bear tissue extracts. The observed CPE in HrT-18G cells included syncytia, intranuclear inclusions, and cell detachments seen in herpesvirus infection in vitro. Herpesvirus-like particles were observed in viral culture supernatant under the electron microscope, however, capsids ranging from 60 nm to 100 nm in size were often observed in viral cultures within the first two passages of propagation. Herpesvirus infection in the bear tissues and tissue cultures were detected by PCR using degenerate primers specific to the DNA polymerase gene (DPOL) and glycoprotein B gene (gB). DNA sequencing of the amplicon revealed that the detected herpesvirus has 94–95% identity to Ursid gammaherpesvirus 1 (UrHV-1) DNA sequences of DPOL. Phylogenetic analysis of DPOL sequences indicates that black bear herpesviruses and UrHV-1 are closely related and have small distances to members of Rhadinovirus. Interestingly, black bear herpesvirus infections were also found in bears without neurological signs. The DPOL DNA sequence of black bear herpesviruses detected in neurological bears were similar to the those detected in the non-neurological bears. However, the gB DNA sequence detected from the neurological bear is different from non-neurological bear and has only 64.5%–70% identity to each other. It is possible that at least two different types of gammaherpesviruses are present in the U. americanus population or several gammaherpesviruses exist in ursine species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in North Carolina, US have recovered significantly in recent decades and now occupy much of western North Carolina, including urbansuburban areas. We used the black bear as a potential sentinel for leptospirosis, a bacterial zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira spp., which is maintained by domestic and wild mammals. We determined whether Leptospira spp. were present across a gradient of housing densities in the urban and suburban black bear population in and around Asheville, North Carolina using serologic and molecular surveys. We collected blood from captured black bears (n=94) and kidneys and bladders from carcasses (n=19). We tested a total of 96 (47 females, 47 males, and 2 unknown) serum samples by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) and had positive results (titer >1:100) for L. kirschneri serovar Grippotyphosa (L. Grippotyphosa) in 4 females (8%) and 5 males (10%). No other serovars showed elevated titers in MAT. We tested a total of 125 samples using PCR (n=96 serum, n=20 kidney, and n=9 bladders) and obtained positive results from one serum (1%), one kidney (5%), and one bladder (11%). The presence of Leptospira spp. in black bears occupying an urban and suburban landscape may indicate a more extensive occurrence of the bacteria among animals in the study region because black bears are the top carnivore in that ecosystem. Potential threats of widespread contamination during natural events such as flood or drought must be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although bear-inflicted (Ursus spp.) human fatalities are rare in North America, human injuries, property damage, and bear mortalities occur wherever bears and humans commingle. We investigated the efficacy of portable electric fencing systems for bear deterrence under a variety of environmental conditions in the lab and field. Our results showed that the bear deterrent systems we evaluated were effective in protecting humans, their food, and property from bears >99% of the time. Herein, we discuss the benefits of using electric fencing, reasons why fences sometimes fail, and provide guidance regarding the most effective implementation of the systems we evaluated. Lastly, we also explore why this deterrent is not yet in widespread use. We encourage the use of electric fencing in bear country for protecting humans, their camping gear and food, and ultimately to promote bear conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 1980s, black bears (Ursus americanus) began expanding into historic habitats in northwestern Nevada, USA. Over a period of >30 years, black bears recolonized areas where human populations have also increased. Our research represents one of, if not the longest-running and earliest comparative studies of a black bear population at wildland- urban interface and wildland areas in North America. As the population increased, we observed: 1) increasing human-bear conflicts in areas where several generations of people had lived in almost total absence of bears (70-80+ years); 2) changes in attitudes by the public toward bears and in the social realm regarding garbage management; and 3) changes in the demographics, behavior, and ecology of this bear population, due to an increasing human footprint on the landscape. Herein, we discuss a few of the lessons learned from this long-term study and the value of a collaborative approach between a state agency, a university, and an international conservation organization. Our collaborative approach allowed us to better understand the ecological, demographic, and behavioral changes in a large, recolonizing carnivore that is a functional omnivore, often residing at the wildlandurban interface, and to use these data to impact conservation and management. Throughout the study, our data were used extensively by various media, emphasizing public education about human-bear conflicts. This media platform proved important because of the impact it had on wildlife conservation. For example, partly in response to media coverage of our databased education efforts, 3 Nevada counties enacted garbage management ordinances, and the Nevada legislature passed a state law prohibiting the feeding of large game mammals. Further, several million dollars in bear-resistant garbage containers are now used in the region by the public and government entities. The end result of these conservation measures has been a recolonization of the Great Basin Desert by bears from the Lake Tahoe Basin and Sierra-Nevada Range into portions of Nevada where bears have been absent for >80 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing recognition that interdisciplinary approaches that account for both ecological and social processes are necessary to successfully address human-wildlife interactions. However, such approaches are hindered by challenges in aligning data types, communicating across disciplines, and applying social science information to conservation actions. To meet these challenges, we propose a conceptual model that adopts a social-ecological systems approach and integrates social and ecological theory to identify the multiple, nested levels of influence on both human and animal behavior. By accounting for a diverse array of influences and feedback mechanisms between social and ecological systems, this model fulfills a need for approaches that treat social and ecological processes with equal depth and facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of human and animal behaviors that perpetuate human-wildlife interactions. We apply this conceptual model to our work on human-black bear conflicts in Colorado, USA to demonstrate its utility. Using this example, we identify key lessons and offer guidance to researchers and conservation practitioners for applying integrated approaches to other human-wildlife systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three mite species ( Demodex ursi, Ursicoptes americanus, and Sarcoptes scabiei) have been associated with mange in black bears ( Ursus americanus). Since the early 1990s, the number and geographic distribution of mange cases in black bears in Pennsylvania, US has increased; however, the causative mites have yet to be completely defined. We evaluated several diagnostic approaches for detection and identification of mites in 72 black bears with severe lesions consistent with mange. Sarcoptes scabiei was morphologically identified in skin scrapes from 66 of the bears; no mites were identified in the remaining six. Histopathologic lesions consistent with sarcoptic mange were observed in 39 of 40 bear skin samples examined, and intralesional mites were observed in samples from 38 of these bears. Samples were collected from a subset of the 72 bears for PCR testing targeting both the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-2 region and cytochrome c oxidase I ( cox1) gene including 69 skin scrapes ( ITS-2 only), 56 skin biopsies ( ITS-2 and cox1), and 36 fecal samples ( ITS-2 and cox1). Skin scrapes were a more sensitive sample for PCR detection than either skin biopsies or fecal samples, and the ITS-2 primers proved more sensitive than cox1. Using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, antibodies to S. scabiei were detected in 45/49 (92%) black bears with confirmed mange and 0/62 (0%) cubs with no gross lesions suggestive of mange and which were born to seronegative sows. Sarcoptes scabiei was the predominant mite associated with mange in black bears in Pennsylvania. Diagnostically, cytologic examination of skin scrapes was the most effective approach for diagnosing active mite infestations in black bears. The evaluated serologic assay accurately detected antibodies to S. scabiei in most bears with confirmed S. scabiei infestations. Additional research is needed to determine the usefulness of this approach for larger scale surveys and for asymptomatic bears. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand for commercial bee (Apis mellifera) services recently has increased, resulting in greater use of mobile apiaries for crop pollination. When commercial apiaries are moved into areas occupied by black bears (Ursus americanus), conflicts between beekeepers and bears sometimes occur. Commercial pollination often involves moving apiaries among agricultural fields, and, thus, permanent fencing is not a viable option for reducing damage by bears. In 2010, we tested the effectiveness of 4 temporary electric fence designs for excluding black bears from bait sites in northern Michigan. We determined the effectiveness of each fence design by observing bear behavior obtained from 24-hour video surveillance. From >433 minutes of bear–fence interactions (BFI), we recorded 168 BFIs in 73 visits by an estimated 15 bears. The only fence design deemed 100% effective at excluding bears consisted of 3 polytape strands charged with 5,000 V and spaced 0.58, 0.39, and 0.23 m from the ground, respectively. Proper fence construction and maintenance are critical elements of effectiveness, and we provide guidance on each. Our results demonstrate that low-cost temporary fencing can be an effective tool for excluding bears from localized sites, such as apiaries.

To properly test hypotheses about the emergence of cognitive capacities in humans and other animals, it is important to test species that differ in morphology and ecology. One of the most notable aspects of animal ecology that has been championed as a factor in the evolution of cognitive skills is social complexity. However, to determine the significance of social lifestyle on an organism‟s cognitive abilities, it is important to test both social and less social species in similar tasks. We have conducted a series of natural categorization studies with three great ape species and recently extended this program of research to include American black bears (Ursus Americanus). Here we analyze the bears‟ choices of stimuli from our previously published categorization experiments and compare the pattern of their choices to that of apes tested previously. Like the apes, the individual bears show idiosyncratic choices that do not clearly differentiate between conceptual and perceptual strategies in performing categorization tasks. Despite their relatively asocial lifestyles, bears thus far appear to display cognitive abilities commiserate with those of the great apes. We suggest that researchers broaden their approach to study more diverse species in analogous tasks and make a concerted effort to view experimental tasks from the animals‟ perspectives.

ABSTRACT Wildlife consumption of human foods is common and these subsidies can alter a species' behavior, demography, and interspecific interactions, and lead to conflicts with humans. Intentional food subsidies, including feeding or baiting of wildlife for viewing or hunting, can represent a large energy source. We studied consumption of bait for an American black bear ( Ursus americanus) population in northern Wisconsin. Given the state's liberal baiting regulations, we hypothesized that bear baits would be highly available, and that bears would readily consume such baits within a hunting season. We documented the abundance of bear bait on forestlands, and quantified the diets of harvested black bears using stable isotopes and Bayesian mixing models to determine the relative contribution of human foods to individual and population diets. Baits occurred at ≥0.25 bait stations/km2 on public lands, and bears ( n = 180) were subsidized by these baits, which contributed to >40% of their diet. Our analysis of multiple tissue types with different turnover rates revealed that harvested bears were relying on subsidies throughout their lifetimes. Patterns of bait consumption were primarily influenced by age-sex class; adult males were the most reliant on human foods, followed by adult females. We found a high level of food subsidization in this bear population. We posit that the high density of bears in northern Wisconsin may be partly due to subsidies. Our results reveal how baits used for hunting can become an important resource for free-ranging bears and highlight the importance of considering potential consequences when bait is used in harvest management. © 2017 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The population of American black bears ( Ursus americanus) in southern New York, USA has been growing and expanding in range since the 1990s. This has motivated a need to anticipate future patterns of range expansion. We conducted a non-invasive, genetic, spatial capture-recapture (SCR) study to estimate black bear density and identify spatial patterns of population density that are potentially associated with range expansion. We collected hair samples in a 2,519-km2 study area in southern New York with barbed-wire hair snares and identified individuals and measured genetic diversity using 7 microsatellite loci and 1 sex-linked marker. We estimated a mean density of black bears in the region of 13.7 bears/100 km2, and detected a slight latitudinal gradient in density consistent with the documented range expansion. However, elevation and the amounts of forest, crop, and developed landcover types did not influence density, suggesting that bears are using a diversity of resources in this heterogeneous landscape outside their previously described distribution. These results provide the first robust baseline estimates for population density and distribution associated with different landcover types in the expanded bear range. Further, genetic diversity was comparable to that of non-expanding black bear populations in the eastern United States, and in combination with the latitudinal density gradient, suggest that the study area is not at the colonizing front of the range expansion. In addition, the diversity of landcover types used by bears in the study area implies a possible lack of constraints for further northern expansion of the black bear range. Our non-invasive, genetic, spatial capture-recapture approach has utility for studying populations of other species that may be expanding in range because SCR allows for the testing of explicit, spatial ecological hypotheses. © 2017 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand for commercial bee (Apis mellifera) services recently has increased, resulting in greater use of mobile apiaries for crop pollination. When commercial apiaries are moved into areas occupied by black bears (Ursus americanus), conflicts between beekeepers and bears sometimes occur. Commercial pollination often involves moving apiaries among agricultural fields, and, thus, permanent fencing is not a viable option for reducing damage by bears. In 2010, we tested the effectiveness of 4 temporary electric fence designs for excluding black bears from bait sites in northern Michigan. We determined the effectiveness of each fence design by observing bear behavior obtained from 24-hour video surveillance. From >433 minutes of bear-fence interactions (BFI), we recorded 168 BFIs in 73 visits by an estimated 15 bears. The only fence design deemed 100% effective at excluding bears consisted of 3 polytape strands charged with 5,000 V and spaced 0.58, 0.39, and 0.23 m from the ground, respectively. Proper fence construction and maintenance are critical elements of effectiveness, and we provide guidance on each. Our results demonstrate that low-cost temporary fencing can be an effective tool for excluding bears from localized sites, such as apiaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The distribution and arrangement of habitats and human use areas are important to understanding where and why conflicts with wildlife occur; such data may inform proactive management activities to minimize conflicts. Black bear ( Ursus americanus) abundance and the number of human-black bear conflicts are increasing in the northeast United States, particularly in developed areas. We applied a spatial modeling approach to identify landscape variables associated with the spatial intensity of human-black bear conflicts in Connecticut, and predicted where conflicts are most likely in the future. Percent forest cover within 1 km2 and the proportion of such forest classified as edge habitat were the most important factors associated with the location of conflicts. We attribute this result to Connecticut's exurban landscape, typical of New England, in which housing and natural land cover are extensively interspersed, as opposed to housing fragmenting natural land cover. This finding can inform town planners and developers in designing future housing to proactively minimize human-black bear conflicts. We also identified areas at high risk for conflict. The extent of these areas will help determine the scale of bear management units within which different management approaches are applied. © 2014 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the relationships of polar bears (Ursus maritimus), brown bears (U. arctos), and black bears (U. americanus) with high throughput genomic sequencing data with an average coverage of 25× for each species. A total of 1.4 billion 100-bp paired-end reads were assembled using the polar bear and annotated giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) genome sequences as references. We identified 13.8 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the 3 species aligned to the polar bear genome. These data indicate that polar bears and brown bears share more SNP with each other than either does with black bears. Concatenation and coalescence-based analysis of consensus sequences of approximately 1 million base pairs of ultraconserved elements in the nuclear genome resulted in a phylogeny with black bears as the sister group to brown and polar bears, and all brown bears are in a separate clade from polar bears. Genotypes for 162 SNP loci of 336 bears from Alaska and Montana showed that the species are genetically differentiated and there is geographic population structure of brown and black bears but not polar bears. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries in North America, large carnivores were significantly reduced in numbers and distribution. Wildlife management priorities changed during the last century to emphasize recovery and conservation with benefits to all species. Populations of large carnivores are likely to persist and expand into new areas within their original range where habitats are both socially and biologically suitable. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are an exception to this pattern as major contractions in numbers and distribution caused by global warming are now unavoidable. The extinction of polar bears during the twenty-first century is possible without great reductions in atmospheric greenhouse gases. Conservation and management of large carnivores is complicated because they require large landscapes, they may compete with hunters for ungulate prey, they can adversely impact economic activities such as livestock operations, and they sometimes, although rarely, attack and kill people. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: The importance of transfers of marine derived nutrients (MDN) in salmon between stream ecosystems and terrestrial riparian systems is a subject of much recent research which has established that MDN subsidies support populations of many animal species, affect riparian zone productivity and may control the biodiversity of riparian plant communities. Numerous biophysical processes are involved in the transfer of MDN between aquatic and riparian zones of streams but, the largest proportion of MDN transport across the aquatic-terrestrial interface appears to depend on the actions of a predator–scavenger complex (PSC) that in British Columbia includes at least 23 species of mammals and birds. Consequently, the role of salmon in maintaining riparian ecosystem integrity depends not only on spatial and temporal variations in salmon abundance but also on variations in the composition and strength of linkages between salmon and other PSC species. Measuring these linkages with traditional methods using direct observation would be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. In the current paper laser activated camera systems, salmon carcass manipulation and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis of hair samples were employed to (1) identify large vertebrate members of the PSC of riparian zone ecosystems and (2) quantify the strength of linkages of these PSC vertebrates to spatial and temporal changes in salmon abundance. Techniques developed and applied here to gain insights into the salmon PSC have several advantages over traditional survey methods. These include semi-automated capture of large volumes of data, identification of diurnally and nocturnally active PSC members, ready inclusion of experiments in field survey design, reduced impacts of unintentional human interference on survey results, and greatly reduced cost relative to direct observational studies. Results reported here confirm black bears (Ursus americanus), pine marten (Martes americana), cougar (Felis concolor), wolverine (Gulo luscus), eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), ravens (Corvus corox), and vultures (Cathartes aura) as large vertebrate members of the regional salmon PSC. However, the composition and strength of linkages between salmon and these PSC members vary so much in space and time that most appear unsuitable as generally useful indicators of the potential magnitude of salmon-dependent, MDN-transport from aquatic to riparian-zone ecosystems. Black bears however, given their high relative abundance, broad geographic distribution, and strong linkages to salmon represent a superior candidate for further development in combination with salmon, as indicators of the maintenance of MDN transport potential in future assessments of riparian ecosystem integrity of salmon bearing streams. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The spatial memory and foraging strategies of four adult captive-born American black bears (Ursus americanus) were explored in four experiments using a simulated foraging task. In the first three experiments, each session consisted of two phases separated by a delay: During the exploration phase, subjects foraged among a set of baited and unbaited sites. During the delay, the same locations were rebaited and subjects were released again and allowed to search the sites (search phase). In Experiments la and lb, different sites were baited each day and the interval between exploration and search was short (4 hr or 15 min). Subjects were not accurate at recovering the food items in either experiment. In Experiment 2, an "informed forager" paradigm was used in which one subject was given privileged knowledge about the location of the food during the exploration phase and was later released with an "uninformed" competitor during the search phase. The bears did not achieve above-chance recovery accuracy even in the presence of a competitor. In Experiment 3, the same two of four sites were continually baited and the bears were released simultaneously over a period of 20 days, with each baiting separated by 2 or 3 days. As a group, the bears' foraging accuracy with repeated baiting and longer intervals approached greater than chance accuracy. Results suggest some limitations on bears' use of spatial memory in captive environments, but reveal the potential for use of spatial memory over longer delays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An aged, free-ranging, female, radio-collared American black bear (Ursus americanus) died after an approximately 5 month long period of weight loss. Gross necropsy findings included severe diffuse pyogranulomatous bronchopneumonia, marked granulomatous lymphadenitis of tracheobronchial lymph nodes and multiple intra-abdominal lymph nodes, chronic focal jejunal ulceration, and widespread alopecia. Histopathologic examination revealed abundant fungal organisms morphologically compatible with Blastomyces sp. within pyogranulomatous inflammatory lesions in the lungs, multiple lymph nodes, liver, kidneys, jejunum, and right adrenal gland. In addition, the haircoat had a mild infestation of chewing lice (Trichodectes pinguis euarctidos), and large numbers of rhabditid nematodes consistent with Pelodera sp. were histologically observed within hair follicles. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

After a 20-year hiatus (1955-1975) during which few archaeologists discussed fluoride dating, the method again received attention in the 1980s and 1990s when some argued for its validity. As a dating method, fluoride dating depends on the rate at which fluorine ions replace hydroxyl ions in osseous tissue. The rate of replacement is influenced by the properties of the skeletal part (SP), sediment chemistry (K), and sediment hydrology (H), and the replacement rate influences estimates of time. Calibrated AMS radiocarbon assays of 10 black bear (Ursus americanus) femora from a natural-trap cave in central Missouri are weakly correlated with fluorine concentrations, determined by neutron activation analysis,in the 10 femora. Despite minimal variation in SF, K, and H, results indicate fluoride dating can be considered a valid dating method only in cases when the chronological validity of its results are confirmed with independent chronometric data. As similarities in fluorine amounts across specimens increase, provenience information and bone orientation data as well as fine resolutioh data on K and H become critical to the application of fluoride dating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compiled, summarized, and reviewed 269 incidents of bear-human conflict involving firearms that occurred in Alaska during 1883-2009. Encounters involving brown bears ( Ursus arctos; 218 incidents, 81%), black bears ( Ursus americanus; 30 incidents, 11%), polar bears ( Ursus maritimus; 6 incidents, 2%), and 15 (6%) unidentified species provided insight into firearms success and failure. A total of 444 people and at least 367 bears were involved in these incidents. We found no significant difference in success rates (i.e., success being when the bear was stopped in its aggressive behavior) associated with long guns (76%) and handguns (84%). Moreover, firearm bearers suffered the same injury rates in close encounters with bears whether they used their firearms or not. Bears were killed in 61% ( n = 162) of bear-firearms incidents. Additionally, we identified multiple reasons for firearms failing to stop an aggressive bear. Using logistic regression, the best model for predicting a successful outcome for firearm users included species and cohort of bear, human activity at time of encounter, whether or not the bear charged, and if fish or game meat was present. Firearm variables (e.g., type of gun, number of shots) were not useful in predicting outcomes in bear-firearms incidents. Although firearms have failed to protect some users, they are the only deterrent that can lethally stop an aggressive bear. Where firearms have failed to protect people, we identified contributing causes. Our findings suggest that only those proficient in firearms use should rely on them for protection in bear country. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As human–black bear conflicts increase, developing conflict mitigation strategies that account for both biological and social understanding has become a primary objective of managers. We examined black bear habitat use in the Florida Panhandle to understand its impact on the spatial distribution of conflicts. Focus groups were conducted with local residents and wildlife professionals to obtain participants' beliefs, attitudes, and preferences toward bears and conflict management approaches. Findings suggest bears prefer using areas located closer to humans and that while participants generally supported the regional presence of bears there was no consensus on how to manage human–bear conflicts. Several habitat and human management implications were identified along with suggestions for additional research. Improving biological and social understanding on the causes of human–black bear conflicts and the efficacy of various mitigation strategies can advance collaboration between the public and wildlife professionals and facilitate agreement on socially acceptable conflict management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We evaluated survival of elk (Cervus elaphus) calves on 2 contrasting study areas in north-central Idaho, USA, from 1997 to 2004. Recruitment was modest (>30 calves:100 F [calves of either sex:F elk ≥1 yr old]) and stable on the South Fork study area and low (<20 calves:100 F) and declining on the Lochsa study area. The primary proximate cause of calf mortality on both study areas was predation by black bears (Ursus americanus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor). We experimentally manipulated populations of black bears and mountain lions on a portion of each study area. Black bear harvest (harvest density/600km2) initially doubled on the Lochsa treatment after manipulating season bag limits. Mountain lion harvest also increased by 60% but varied widely during the manipulation period. Harvest seasons were closed for black bears and mountain lions on the treatment portion of the South Fork study area. Using the Andersen-Gill formulation (A-G) of the Cox proportional hazards model, we examined effects of landscape structure, predator harvest levels, and biological factors on summer calf survival. We used Akaike's Information Criterion (AICc) and multimodel inference to assess some potentially useful predictive factors relative to calf survival. We generated risk ratios for both the best models and for model-averaged coefficients. Our models predicted that calf survival was influenced by biological factors, landscape surrounding calf locations, and predator harvest levels. The model that best explained mortality risk to calves on the Lochsa included black bear harvest (harvest density/600 km2), estimated birth mass of calves, and percentage of shrub cover surrounding calf locations. Incorporating a shrub × time interaction allowed us to correct for nonproportionality and detect that effect of shrub cover was only influential during the first 14 days of a calf's life. Model-averaging indicated that estimated birth mass of calves and black bear harvest were twice as important as the next variables, but age of calves at capture was also influential in calf survival. The model that best explained mortality risk to calves on the South Fork included black bear harvest, age of calves at capture, and gender of calves. Model-averaging indicated that age at capture and black bear harvest were twice as important as the next variable, forest with 33-66% canopy cover (Canopy 33- 66). Risk to calves decreased when calves occupied areas with more of this forest cover type. Model-averaging also indicated that increased mountain lion harvest lowered calf mortality risk 4% for every 1-unit increase in lion harvest (harvest density/600 km2) but was lower (<25%) in importance compared to age at capture and black bear harvest. Our results suggest that levels of predator harvest, and presumably predator density, resource limitations expressed through calf birth mass, and habitat structure had substantial effects on calf survival. Our results can be generalized to other areas where managers are dealing with low calf elk recruitment. However, because factors vary spatially, a single management strategy applied in different areas will probably not have the same effect on calf survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DNA-based mark-recapture has become a methodological cornerstone of research focused on bear species. The objective of such studies is often to estimate population size; however, doing so is frequently complicated by movement of individual bears. Movement affects the probability of detection and the assumption of closure of the population required in most models. To mitigate the bias caused by movement of individuals, population size and density estimates are often adjusted using ad hoc methods, including buffering the minimum polygon of the trapping array. We used a hierarchical, spatial capture-recapture model that contains explicit components for the spatial-point process that governs the distribution of individuals and their exposure to (via movement), and detection by, traps. We modeled detection probability as a function of each individual's distance to the trap and an indicator variable for previous capture to account for possible behavioral responses. We applied our model to a 2006 hair-snare study of a black bear (Ursus americanus) population in northern New York, USA. Based on the microsatellite marker analysis of collected hair samples, 47 individuals were identified. We estimated mean density at 0.20 bears/km2. A positive estimate of the indicator variable suggests that bears are attracted to baited sites; therefore, including a trap-dependence covariate is important when using bait to attract individuals. Bayesian analysis of the model was implemented in WinBUGS, and we provide the model specification. The model can be applied to any spatially organized trapping array (hair snares, camera traps, mist nests, etc.) to estimate density and can also account for heterogeneity and covariate information at the trap or individual level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The American black bear (Ursus americanus) experienced a significant range contraction during the 19th and 20th centuries due to a variety of anthropogenic factors. Although previous molecular studies of black bears provided insight into historic and contemporary forces shaping phylogeographic patterns, none included black bears from the central part of the species distribution. Understanding the historical aspects of the connectivity and genetic differentiation of black bears in this region is important for proper management and conservation programs, but this understanding is confounded by poorly documented translocation efforts and population expansion. To address these issues, we generated mitochondrial DNA sequence data for 409 black bears from 15 populations in North America. Two sampling localities (Manitoba, Canada, and Minnesota) were source populations for translocation into western Arkansas and Louisiana. Major conclusions from our study include: black bears in western Arkansas were affected genetically by the translocation program; eastern Oklahoma has been repopulated by westward expansion of bears from Arkansas with a mixture of translocated bears and remnant individuals; black bears in Louisiana were not affected genetically by the translocation program; black bears in western Texas and northern Mexico dispersed there from the southeastern United States; and bears in White River National Wildlife Refuge (eastern Arkansas) share closer genetic affinities with U. a. luteolus than they do with the widespread U. a. americanus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-black bear conflict is a persistent wildlife management problem in North America. Conflicts in urban areas are linked to continued growth and expansion of human populations as well as increased availability of anthropogenic attractants (e.g., garbage, birdfeed). Responding to urban bear conflicts can present difficult and highly publicized management decisions. This challenge highlights the need to understand the basis for resident behavior and perceptions in relation to human-black bear conflict situations. Randomly selected residents (n = 317) of two Colorado communities with frequent human-black bear conflicts responded to Internet and mail questionnaires measuring attitudes toward urban black bears and preferences for management actions. Fifty percent of respondents held positive attitudes, 15% expressed negative attitudes, and 35% were mixed. Attitudes and situational elements influenced the acceptability of commonly used management responses to human-bear conflict. Implications of this research include anticipating support for management actions and communication of management goals with the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a comprehensive look at a sample of bear spray incidents that occurred in Alaska, USA, from 1985 to 2006. We analyzed 83 bear spray incidents involving brown bears (Ursus arctos; 61 cases, 74%), black bears (Ursus americanus; 20 cases, 24%). and polar bears (Ursus maritimus, 2 cases, 2%). Of the 72 cases where persons sprayed bears to defend themselves, 50 (69%) involved brown bears, 20 (28%) black bears, and 2 (3%) polar bears. Red pepper spray stopped bears' undesirable behavior 92% of the time when used on brown bears, 90% for black bears, and 100% for polar bears. Of all persons carrying sprays, 98% were uninjured by bears in close-range encounters. All bear-inflicted injuries (n = 3) associated with defensive spraying involved brown bears and were relatively minor (i.e., no hospitalization required). In 7% (5 of 71) of bear spray incidents, wind was reported to have interfered with spray accuracy, although it reached the bear in all eases. In 14% (10 of 71) of bear spray incidents, users reported the spray having had negative side effects upon themselves, ranging from minor irritation (11%, 8 of 71) to near incapacitation (3%, 2 of 71). Bear spray represents an effective alternative to lethal force and should be considered as an option for personal safety for those recreating and working in bear country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a snare for collection of black bear (Ursus americanus) hair that obtained a unique hair sample at each snare site, improved the quantity of collected hair compared to barbed-wire corrals, and was easy to deploy over a wide range of topographical features and habitat conditions. This device allowed us to implement intensive sampling methodology needed in mark-recapture experiments with minimal effort. By improving the quantity of hair collected, we also lowered the potential for bear identification errors at the lab. During 2003-2004, bears in 2 study areas triggered snares 1,104 times, which resulted in the collection of 981 hair samples. Of the samples we collected, 79% (775) produced valid genetic data. In 2003, 454 samples identified 79 genetically distinct individuals, and 321 samples identified 86 genetically distinct individuals in 2004. Analysis of capture-recapture data indicated that capture probabilities were affected by heterogeneity among individuals and behavioral responses, but showed little evidence of time effects. Consequently, we used the Pollock and Otto (1983) estimator for model Mbh to estimate abundance with reasonably good precision (CV: 12-14%). Density on the Steamboat and Toketee, Oregon, USA, study areas over the 2-year period averaged 19 bears/100 km² and 22 bears/100 km², respectively. Average capture and recapture probabilities over the 2 years of the study were 30% and 63%, respectively, indicating a trap-prone behavioral response. Knowledge of bear densities on the Steamboat and Toketee study areas will enable managers to set hunting quotas, advise land management agencies on habitat issues, and create a baseline database to assist in the long-term monitoring of bear trends in a changing landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative human–black bear interactions in New York's Adirondack Park campgrounds pose risk management challenges. Communication is one tool available to modify human behavior and reduce associated risks, but knowledge of constructs influencing risk perception among key stakeholder groups is needed to design effective risk communication approaches. We interviewed managers (n = 14) and users (n = 40) at 7 Adirondack Park campgrounds to characterize risk perceptions between groups. We identified eight constructs influencing risk perceived by users and/or managers with three constructs congruent between groups, and five constructs divergent. We discuss how congruencies and shared understanding across groups, and explicit recognition by risk communicators of differences between groups, may offer opportunities to maximize successes of risk communication efforts in campgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New York State's Adirondack Park is home to an estimated 6,000 black bears (Ursus americanus), about 75% of the state's total population. Human-bear interactions at the Park's nearly 100 campgrounds are commonplace. Some interactions are conflicts that include risks to personal safety and property damage. Between 19 June 2003 and 18 August 2003, we interviewed 54 Adirondack Park campers and caretakers at 7 campgrounds to determine stakeholder-perceived risks. We structured interviews to assess 9 possible constructs influencing risks not yet reported in the literature for human-bear conflicts from campground stakeholders' perspectives: volition of exposure; certainty; feelings of dread; perceived frequency of exposure to risk; responsiveness of black bear managers; trust in black bear managers; familiarity of risk; natural causes of risk; and control over risk. Overall, perceived risk associated with human-bear conflict was low. Evidence-based analysis revealed 8 of 9 constructs to be salient. We characterized salient constructs according to camper and caretaker perspectives. Caretakers had a higher risk perception than campers. Using camper comments as a foundation, we classified groups of constructs as agency capacity/responsiveness (i.e., incorporating volition, trust, and responsiveness of wildlife managers), and individual capacity/knowledge (i.e., incorporating perceived certainty, dread, and frequency, control over exposure to risks associated with black bears, and magnitude or acuteness of exposure to risks associated with black bears). With additional confirmatory analysis, these constructs and methodology may have the potential to increase understanding of risk perceptions associated with human-bear conflict and inform the content and format of strategic management plans incorporating risk management and communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indices of relative abundance allow managers and researchers to examine changes in population size over time or compare relative population sizes in different areas. In the Pisgah Bear Sanctuary, bait-station surveys were conducted in most years from 1983 to 2000 to follow trends over time in the black bear (Ursus americanus) population. Baited bear trapping also took place in the sanctuary during those years, and some trap lines coincided with bait-station lines. Because the same baits were used for both trapping and bait station lines, we hypothesized that visitation rates of bears to bait stations established in proximity to baited trap lines would differ from rates at bait stations that were not associated with baited trap lines. We modeled probability of bait stations being visited by bears on trapped and untrapped lines to estimate the effect baited trapping had on visitation rates. We found that population trends inferred from bait-station visits in areas that also were trapped with bait were biased high and that bias increased over time. Bears may have become habituated to the bait on trap lines and incorporated it as a regular food source. Bait-station indices should not be conducted near research sites that employ similar bait when both produce a tangible reward for the animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]