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This work was funded by Formas (Project # 2018-01824), and through the generous support of the Erling-Persson Family Foundation to the Global Economic Dynamics and the Biosphere, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Sweden. Crop residue burning in Indian Punjab emits particulate matter with detrimental impacts on health, climate and that threaten agricultural production. Though legal and technological barriers to residue burning exist – and alternatives considered more profitable to farmers – residue burning continues. We review black carbon (BC) emissions from residue burning in Punjab, analyse social-ecological processes driving residue burning, and rice and wheat value-chains. Our aims are to a) understand system feedbacks driving agricultural practices in Punjab; b) identify systemic effects of alternatives to residue burning and c) identify companies and financial actors investing in agricultural production in Punjab. We find feedbacks locking the system into crop residue burning. The Government of India has greatest financial leverage and risk in the current system. Corporate stakeholders have little financial incentive to enact change, but sufficient stakes in the value chains to influence change. Agricultural policy changes are necessary to reduce harmful impacts of current practices, but insufficient to bringing about sustainability. Transformative changes will require crop diversification, circular business models and green financing. Intermediating financial institutions setting sustainability conditions on loans could leverage these changes. Sustainability requires the systems perspective we provide, to reconnect production with demand and with supporting environmental conditions. Publisher PDF

This study has been supported by the Research Council of Norway (project ID: 275407, COMBAT - Quantification of Global Ammonia Sources constrained by a Bayesian Inversion Technique). Nikolaos Evangeliou and Sabine Eckhardt received funding from the Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme (AMAP). John Backman was supported by the Academy of Finland project Novel Assessment of Black Carbon in the Eurasian Arctic: From Historical Concentrations and Sources to Future Climate Impacts (NABCEA; project no. 296302), the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence programme (project no. 307331) and COST Action CA16109 Chemical On-Line cOmpoSition and Source Apportionment of fine aerosoL, COLOSSAL. The research leading to the ACTRIS measurements has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research And Innovation programme (grant agreement no. 654109) and the Cloudnet project (European Union contract EVK2-2000-00611)., All measurement data and model outputs used for the present publication are publicly available and can be downloaded from https://doi.org/10.21336/gen.b5vj-sn33 (Evangeliou et al., 2020) or upon request to the corresponding author. All prior emission datasets are also available for download. ECLIPSE emissions can be obtained from http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/researchPrograms/air/Global_emissions.html (Klimont et al., 2017), EDGAR version HTAP_V2.2 from http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/methodology.php# (Janssens-Maenhout et al., 2015), ACCMIP version 5 from http://accent.aero.jussieu.fr/ACCMIP_metadata.php (Lamarque et al., 2010) and PKU from http://inventory.pku.edu.cn (Peking University, 2021). FLEXPART is publicly available and can be downloaded from https://www.flexpart.eu (Pisso et al., 2019) and FLEXINVERT+ from https://flexinvert.nilu.no (Thompson and Stohl, 2014). MERRA-2 reanalysis data can be obtained from https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov (NASA Earth Data, 2021) and AERONET measurements from https://aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov (Holben et al., 1998)., The supplement related to this article is available online at: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-2675-2021-supplement., Following the emergence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) responsible for COVID-19 in December 2019 in Wuhan (China) and its spread to the rest of the world, the World Health Organization declared a global pandemic in March 2020. Without effective treatment in the initial pandemic phase, social distancing and mandatory quarantines were introduced as the only available preventative measure. In contrast to the detrimental societal impacts, air quality improved in all countries in which strict lockdowns were applied, due to lower pollutant emissions. Here we investigate the effects of the COVID-19 lockdowns in Europe on ambient black carbon (BC), which affects climate and damages health, using in situ observations from 17 European stations in a Bayesian inversion framework. BC emissions declined by 23 kt in Europe (20 % in Italy, 40 % in Germany, 34 % in Spain, 22 % in France) during lockdowns compared to the same period in the previous 5 years, which is partially attributed to COVID-19 measures. BC temporal variation in the countries enduring the most drastic restrictions showed the most distinct lockdown impacts. Increased particle light absorption in the beginning of the lockdown, confirmed by assimilated satellite and remote sensing data, suggests residential combustion was the dominant BC source. Accordingly, in central and Eastern Europe, which experienced lower than average temperatures, BC was elevated compared to the previous 5 years. Nevertheless, an average decrease of 11 % was seen for the whole of Europe compared to the start of the lockdown period, with the highest peaks in France (42 %), Germany (21 %), UK (13 %), Spain (11 %) and Italy (8 %). Such a decrease was not seen in the previous years, which also confirms the impact of COVID-19 on the European emissions of BC., Research Council of Norway, rctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme (AMAP)., Academy of Finland project Novel Assessment of Black Carbon in the Eurasian Arctic: From Historical Concentrations and Sources to Future Climate Impacts (NABCEA) 296302, Academy of Finland 307331, European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) CA16109, European Union's Horizon 2020 Research And Innovation programme 654109, Cloudnet project European Union EVK2-2000-00611

©2020. The Authors. Large-scale soil application of biochar is one of the terrestrial carbon sequestration strategies for future climate change mitigation pathways, which can also help remove and sequester pollutants from contaminated soil and water. However, black carbon emissions from biochar-amended soils can deteriorate air quality and affect human health, as the biochar particles often contain a higher amount of sorbed toxic pollutants than the soil. Yet, the extent and mechanism of inhalable particulate matter (PM10) emission from biochar-amended soils at different wind regimes have not been evaluated. Using wind tunnel experiments to simulate different wind regimes, we quantified particulate emission from sand amended with 1–4% (by weight) biochar at two size fractions: with and without

Large‐scale soil application of biochar is one of the terrestrial carbon sequestration strategies for future climate change mitigation pathways, which can also help remove and sequester pollutants from contaminated soil and water. However, black carbon emissions from biochar‐amended soils can deteriorate air quality and affect human health, as the biochar particles often contain a higher amount of sorbed toxic pollutants than the soil. Yet, the extent and mechanism of inhalable particulate matter (PM10) emission from biochar‐amended soils at different wind regimes have not been evaluated. Using wind tunnel experiments to simulate different wind regimes, we quantified particulate emission from sand amended with 1–4% (by weight) biochar at two size fractions: with and without, Key Points The applied biochar can be transported out of the soil system even at low wind velocities, potentially along with adsorbed contaminantsCurrent models for fugitive dust emissions may underestimate particulate matter emission potential of biochar‐amended soils

Global warming – causing the climate to change – is one of the most pervasive global concerns, because it is increasingly impacting everyone’s live. The main contributors to global warming are carbon dioxide and BC (black carbon) emissions, both deadly air pollutants. BC emissions, that are a product of the combustion of biogenic and fossil fuels, have a high mean radiative forcing, and thus, they are one of the most dangerous climate forcers. Arctic area is where the impacts are the most visible, because the region’s ice surfaces are rapidly melting, which does not only impact humans living in the area, but also the ecosystems. BC emissions cause similar impacts across the world. Arctic Council, a high-level intergovernmental forum, addresses these issues in cooperation between member states, permanent participants and observers. One of the main focus points of the council is to protect the sensitive Arctic environment, which is impacted by global behaviour, for example, through the amount of emitted BC to the atmosphere. 2017-2019 marked Finnish chairmanship in the Arctic Council during which high emphasis was placed on explaining why reducing BC emissions is critical and facilitating action to reduce the emission. BC emission reductions were – and are still – considered as a Finnish national goal, which is strengthened by President Sauli Niinistö’s emphasis on the topic. “If we lose the Arctic, we lose the globe”, is one of the sentences that President Niinistö often includes in his speeches when discussing global warming. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore Finnish contributions to the decision-making in the Arctic Council in terms of sustainable development whist focusing on BC emissions. In particular, it is investigated why BC emissions are a topic of utmost importance for the Finnish state, gauged what kind of a message on dangerous BC emissions is spread within the Arctic Council and explored what kind of perceptions the member states, permanent participants and observers have about the message. In addition, the aim is to shed light on the question of what kind of international regime for climate change action Finland desires the Arctic Council to develop into. To understand Finland’s role as a forerunner in raising awareness about BC emissions and facilitating action to reduce them, policy entrepreneurship theory is utilized. Policy entrepreneurship has been widely acknowledged as a critical part for opening and utilizing windows of opportunities, creating change momentum and facilitating change. Policy entrepreneurs can, however, also prevent change from happening. In the case of Finland, the nation is clearly advocating for global BC emission reductions, and thus, it is a change driven policy entrepreneur. Qualitative methods, such as semi-structured theme interviews and qualitative content analysis, are employed to provide an in-depth understanding of why reducing BC emissions is of robust importance for Finland and what kind of policy entrepreneurial characteristics Finland obtained to promote them during its chairmanship. Due to President Niinistö’s high profile position as a BC emission reduction advocate, press conference material between President Niinistö and his colleagues in other Arctic states are also analysed. Combining two data collections methods enabled a more holistic understanding of the difference between national and individual policy entrepreneurial characteristics. This study makes theoretical contributions by revealing that the policy entrepreneurial characteristics – leading by example, network building and skill to define problems – are applicable to a nation, while leadership skills are solely possessed by individuals. Even though the policy entrepreneurial characteristics of Finland are context-specific, the findings disclose that by unifying the emission reduction message and tackling how emissions released into the atmosphere through recreational behaviour could be decreased, Finland could better succeed in building its network and in reaching its long-term emission reduction targets. Therefore, the study discusses environmental diplomacy of Finland in the case of the Arctic Council. However, there was not a clear change taking place in the Arctic Council during the period under analysis, and thus, the study highlights an unexplored area in the literature – policy entrepreneurial role of a nation. While the research gap is approached through the characteristics in this study, more research is needed on the difference between national and individual policy entrepreneurship as well as on the policy entrepreneurial strategies of a nation.

Uncontrolled burning of municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important source of air pollution and is wide spread in many developing countries, but only limited data quantify the extent of domestic open burning of household waste. Here, we present some of the first field data to be reported on the uncontrolled domestic burning of waste. A representative community of Mexico (Huejutla de Reyes Municipality) was investigated and household surveys, interviews with waste operators and a waste characterisation analysis were completed to assess the extent of, and factors controlling, the open burning of waste. Waste collection provision to rural communities was very limited and, consequently 92% of households in rural areas reported that they disposed of waste by uncontrolled burning in backyards or unofficial dumps. Overall, 24% of the total MSW generated in the Municipality was disposed by uncontrolled burning. Urban and periurban areas received twice-weekly collections and the rate of uncontrolled burning was considerably smaller compared to rural households, corresponding to approximately 2% of total waste generation. Carbon equivalency calculations showed that burning waste in backyards represented approximately 6% of the total and 8.5% of fuel related CO2Eq emissions by the municipality. Moreover, the equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2Eq) from black carbon (BC) emitted by uncontrolled burning in backyards was over fifteen times larger compared to methane (CH4) potentially released from equivalent amounts of combustible biodegradable waste disposal at the official dumpsite. An assessment of local respiratory health data showed the incidence of disease was higher in rural than in urban areas, when the opposite trend is typically observed in the international literature; given the high rate of burning activity found in rural areas we suggest that open burning of waste could be a major reason for the apparent poorer respiratory health status of the rural population and requires further investigation. The results emphasise the importance of including BC from uncontrolled burning of waste in international emission inventories of greenhouse gases and in the assessment of the health status of local communities in developing countries where this practice is prevalent.

This paper uses a randomized experimental design and real-time electronic stove use monitors to evaluate the frequency with which villagers use improved biomass-burning Mirt injera cookstoves in rural Ethiopia. Understanding whether, how much, and why improved cookstoves are used is important, because use of the improved stove is a critical determinant of indoor air pollution reductions, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions due to lower fuelwood consumption. Confirming use is, for example, a critical aspect of crediting improved cookstoves’ climate change benefits under the United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Programme. The paper finds that Ethiopian households in the study area do use the Mirt stove on a regular basis, taking into account regional differences in cooking patterns. In general, stove users also use their Mirt stoves more frequently over time. Giving the Mirt stove away for free and supporting community-level user networks are estimated to lead to more use. The study found no evidence, however, that stove recipients use the stoves more if they have to pay for them, a hypothesis that frequently arises in policy arenas and has also been examined in the literature.

Reliance on solid fuels for cooking is an indicator of energy poverty. Access to modern energy services - including electricity and clean fuels - is important for achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It can also reduce womens domestic burden of collecting fuelwood and allow them to pursue educational, economic, and other employment opportunities that can empower them and lead to increased gender equality. Similarly, the use of clean cooking and heating fuels in efficient appliances can reduce child mortality rates. Without access to modern energy services, the likelihood of escaping poverty is very low. Interventions to improve energy access to the poor have focused mainly on electricity access and have often neglected nonelectricity household energy access. Household energy for cooking in particular has received little policy attention in the overall energy sector dialogue, and consequently its lending volume remains low, in spite of the magnitude of the development challenges it represents. The objective of this note is to assist task teams with broad project design principles related to household energy for cooking. It follows five main reports produced by the World Bank Group over the last three years: (1) Household Cookstoves, Environment, Health, and Climate Change: A New Look at an Old Problem; (2) Household Energy Access for Cooking and Heating: Lessons Learned and the Way Forward; (3) One Goal, Two Paths Achieving Universal Access to Modern Energy in East Asia and Pacific; (4) Wood-Based Biomass Energy Development for Sub-Saharan Africa; and (5) What Have We Learned about Household Biomass Cooking in Central America? These reports make the case for a re-engagement of the World Bank Group in the household energy access sector. This note is organized into two sections: (a) context and background, and (b) project design principles.

Open fires and primitive stoves have been used for cooking since the beginning of human history. They have come in various sizes and styles, having been adapted to myriad cultures and food preparation methods. As society has progressed, more sophisticated stove models have been developed. Today's modern kitchens reflect the many types of standardized and specialized cooking devices available, from coffee and tea pots to toasters and gas cook tops. But in many developing countries worldwide, the poor still burn biomass energy to meet their household cooking needs. These open fires are fairly inefficient at converting energy into heat for cooking; the amount of biomass fuel needed each year for basic cooking can reach up to two tons per family. In addition, collecting this fuel sometimes can take an hour a day on average. Furthermore, these open fires and primitive cook stoves emit a significant amount of smoke, which fills the home; this indoor cooking smoke has been associated with a number of diseases, the most serious of which are chronic and acute respiratory illnesses, such as bronchitis and pneumonia. This report takes a fresh look at what new approaches might be used to tackle this well known yet complex multi-sector issue. Although there are other ways to reduce household air pollution, including inter fuel substitution and household ventilation, this study focuses mainly on the recently developed biomass cook stoves for developing countries and their financing models and sources. Known by many as 'advanced biomass cook stoves,' these new cook stoves generally have better energy-combustion properties and reduce fuel consumption by about half. Such innovations warrant the development of a more serious program to deal with both the emissions and health issues resulting from cooking with open fires or traditional biomass cook stoves.

This internal background paper has been prepared to help inform the 2010 environment strategy with respect to a proposed way forward on use of country systems. The World Bank Group environment strategy is built on three pillars: leveraging natural resources for growth and poverty reduction; managing the environmental risks to growth and development; and transforming growth paths. As part of its exploration of these three pillars, the strategy considers the question of environmental co-benefits of climate change actions. In particular, it poses the question of potential trade-offs between actions to address climate change and other local and regional environmental priorities, and considers how to maximize co-benefits arising from climate action. The primary objective of this background paper is to assess the potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation actions to provide environmental co-benefits, particularly in the quality of environmental media, flow of ecosystem services, and maintenance of biodiversity. To accomplish this, the paper is organized in five sections: section one gives provision of an organizing framework to identify and classify potential co-benefits; section two gives summary of the external literature on co-benefits; section three gives review of examples from the World Bank portfolio; section four presents initial thoughts on creation of enabling conditions for co-benefit provision; and section five gives review of implications for the environment strategy.