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Lentiviruses infect small ruminants and cause similar but different two significant diseases: Maedi-Visna in sheep and Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis in goats. In the current study, 91 of 413 adult sheep and goats from the Korça region tested positive for small ruminant lentiviruses. Furthermore, 11 of the 25 small ruminant herds have at least one positive animal for small ruminant lentiviruses. The overall observed herd prevalence was 44.0% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 29-59) for both diseases, 38.6% (95% CI: 18.6-55.1) for Maedi-Visna in sheep, and 66.7% (95% CI: 43.1-90.2) for Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis in goats. The average observed prevalence rate ranges from 20% to 82.9% (95% CI: 12-89.2) within positive goat's herds, while within sheep-positive herds, it varies from 23.1% to 57.1% (95% CI: 11.7-70.4). There was a positive correlation between seroprevalence rate and animal species; goats seem to have an odd 2.36 (Odds Ratio (OR) 95% CI: 1.48-3.76) higher than sheep to test positive in ELISA. Other risk factors, such as farm size, indoor versus outdoor rearing, and close farm biosecurity, may play a role in disease transmission between and within small ruminant animals' herds. This is the first study on the prevalence of Maedi-Visna infection in sheep and one of the few published Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis studies in Albania. These findings support the presence of Small Ruminant Lentiviruses (SRLV) in the Korça district and emphasize the need for monitoring and controlling SRLV infection in sheep and goats. According to the study's conclusions, a yearly monitoring program is essential and must be developed in the future to keep the disease under control. This initiative aims to help owners understand SRLV and the need to raise seronegative animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) is an under-studied virus infecting caprines and ovines worldwide. Over the last four decades, CAEV has spread in China, obtaining genomic data on CAEV strains circulating in China is of importance for developing diagnostic methods and eradicating associated diseases. However, there is limited information on the genome, including characterizations, and the probable origin. This work aimed to characterize Chinese CAEV genomes and population structures. Five CAEV strains isolated from infected dairy goats between 1989 and 1994 in Gansu, Guizhou, Shaanxi, Shandong and Sichuan provinces were cloned and sequenced. The Chinese CAEV had a 58–93% genome similarities to strains outside of China, and they belonged to subgenotype B1. The highest similarity levels (98.3–99.3%) were with two other Chinese strains, and they shared a 91.8–92.3% similarity with the strain Clements (GenBank accession no. NC_001463.1) from outside of China. The Chinese CAEV strains isolated from different provinces over five years were still highly homologous and contained unique ancestral population components, indicating that these Chinese strains had a common origin that differed from other known strains. Our results provide genomic data on circulating Chinese CAEV strains and will be useful for future epidemiological investigations and CAEV eradication programs.

Background and Aim: Several reports described the detection of specific caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) antibodies in Russian goat populations, which indicates the circulation of CAEV in Russian goat farms. The aim of this study was to use a multi-target approach to testing with both serological tests and an in-house real-time (RT) molecular test to investigate the prevalence of CAEV in goats from three hobbyist farms in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Materials and Methods: We applied a multi-target approach to testing with both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and an in-house RT polymerase chain reaction test to investigate the prevalence of CAEV in goats. Animals from the three hobbyist farms were used in this study. The animals from two farms (n=13 for F1 and n=8 for F2) had clinical signs of arthritis and mastitis. In the third farm (n=15 for F3), all goats were home-bred and had no contact with imported animals. Results: CAEV antibodies (ELISA targets TM env and gag genes) were detected in serum samples from two farms (F1 and F2), indicating seroprevalence of 87.50-92.31%. Specific CAEV antibodies were also detected in milk samples. CAEV proviral DNA was detected in 53.85-62.50%. The results from all tests performed in the third farm (F3) were negative, indicating that all tests were 100% specific. Conclusion: The results showed that CAEV is circulating and present in small hobbyist goat farms in Russia. Serological and molecular tests could be important for programs to control and eradicate CAEV in Russia for hobbyist goat farms.

Background: Deoxyuracil triphosphate nucleotide (dUTP) pyrophosphatase (dUTPase, DU) is an enzyme of caprine arthritisencephalitis virus (CAEV) that minimizes incorporation of dUTP into the DNA. Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus relies partly on its ability to escape from innate immunity to cause persistent infections. Interferon β (IFN-β) is an important marker for evaluating the innate immune system, and it has a broad spectrum of antiviral activity. Aims: This study was conducted to investigate the details of the IFN-β response to CAEV infection. Methods: The expression of IFN-β and the proliferation of Sendai virus (SeV) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) were determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The effect of DU on the IFN signaling pathway was evaluated using luciferase reporter assays. Results: In our study, the expression of IFN-β was significantly inhibited and the proliferation of SeV and VSV was promoted in cells overexpressing CAEV-DU. DU affected interferon stimulated response element (ISRE) and IFN-β promoter activities induced by RIG-I/MDA5/MAVS/TBK1 pathway, while did not affect them induced by interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3-5D). Conclusion: DU protein downregulated the production of IFN-β by inhibiting the activity of the signal transduction molecules upstream of IRF3, thereby, helping CAEV escape innate immunity. Findings of this work provide an evidence to understand the persistent infection and multiple system inflammation of CAEV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) are found in sheep in Germany and Iran. SRLVs have been classified into four genotypes: A–C and E. Genotype A has been subdivided into 20 subtypes. Previous studies suggested that, first, the ancestors of genotype A are those SRLVs found in Turkey, second, the evolution of SRLVs is related to the domestication process, and, third, SRLV infection was first observed in sheep in Iceland and the source of that infection was a flock imported from Germany. This study generated, for the first time, partial SRLV sequence data from German and Iranian sheep, enhancing our knowledge of the genetic and evolutionary relationships of SRLVs, and their associations with the domestication process. Based on 54 SRLV sequences from German and Iranian sheep, our results reveal: (1) SRLV subtypes A4, A5, A11, A16 and A21 (new) are found in German sheep and A22 (new) in Iranian sheep. (2) Genotype A has potentially an additional ancestor (A22), found in Iran, Lebanon and Jordan. (3) Subtype A22 is likely an old version of SRLVs. (4) The transmission routes of some SRLVs are compatible with domestication pathways. (5) This study found no evidence of Icelandic subtype A1 in German sheep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A longitudinal study was conducted in a single dairy goat herd to investigate the relationship between subclinical small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection in does and litter size (LS) or birth body weight of kids (BW). Each year kids born to seropositive and seronegative does were weighed before the first consumption of colostrum. LS and BW of each kid were recorded. BW was significantly negatively linked to LS (p = 0.006) – singletons weighed (mean ± SD) 4.20 ± 0.67 kg, twins – 3.75 ± 0.62 kg, and triplets and quadruplets – 3.38 ± 0.47 kg. Male kids were significantly heavier than female kids in twin litters (3.97 ± 0.53 kg vs. 3.52 ± 0.60 kg; p < 0.001) and triplet or quadruplet litters (3.62 ± 0.40 kg vs. 3.17 ± 0.43 kg; p < 0.001). However, BW of male and female kids from singleton litters did not differ (4.31 ± 0.71 kg vs. 4.07 ± 0.65 kg; p = 0.154). Then, two mixed models were developed to assess the relationship between LS (mixed Poisson log linear regression model) or BW (mixed linear model) and SRLV infection in the doe, controlling for potential confounders such as the effect of an individual doe, year in which the parturition took place, parity and kid's sex. Neither LS nor BW proved to be significantly associated with SRLV infection (p = 0.788 and p = 0.214, respectively). On this basis it was concluded that LS and BW were not affected by the subclinical SRLV infection of a doe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the current classification small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) includes the lentivirus species that infect goats and that were previously known as caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) and the Maedi/Visna virus (MVV) infects sheep. Based on phylogenetic analyses of the gag and env gene, it has been observed that this virus has five genogroups assigned with letters A to E. In genotype A, 18 subtypes (A1 to A18) and B, four subtypes (B1 to B4) have been included. Genotype E is divided into subtype E1 and E2, they have been identified exclusively in goats located in Italy. In Mexico genotypes A and B circulate naturally in sheep and goats. Currently, the factors related to the national situation that favor the presence of the virus in the production units are not known, so the objective of this study is to identify the presence of SRLV in different types of production units and determine which are the factors that favor their presence in sheep and goats of different types of production units. Thirteen sheep with goat coexistence production units (mixed) were selected, 4 units of goat production and 19 of sheep were selected. We make a serological diagnosis and work with an end point polymerase chain reaction (PCRpf) test for molecular diagnosis. In the positive samples we identification genogroup A and B with a real-time PCR test. The results demonstrate in the mixed production both genotypes circulate, in the sheep production circulate genotype A and in goat production B. The association between the signs and the frequency of infection, a significant effect of the positivity rate with respiratory signs in sheep and with mastitis and arthritis in goat. With these results we demonstrate that it is extremely important to implement biosafety strategies as part of the preventive medicine programs in the sheep and goat production in Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV), a lentivirus, relies on the action of the Rev protein for its replication. The CAEV Rev fulfills its function by allowing the nuclear exportation of partially spliced or unspliced viral mRNAs. In this study, we characterized the nuclear and nucleolar localization signals (NLS and NoLS, respectively) and the nuclear export signal (NES) of the CAEV Rev protein. These signals are key actors in the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of a lentiviral Rev protein. Several deletion and alanine substitution mutants were generated from a plasmid encoding the CAEV Rev wild-type protein that was fused to the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Following cell transfection, images were captured by confocal microscopy and the fluorescence was quantified in the different cell compartments. The results showed that the NLS region is localized between amino acids (aa) 59 to 75, has a monopartite-like structure and is exclusively composed of arginine residues. The NoLS was found to be partially associated with the NLS. Finally, the CAEV Rev protein’s NES mapped between aa 89 to 101, with an aa spacing between the hydrophobic residues that was found to be unconventional as compared to that of other retroviral Rev/Rev-like proteins.

This study was conducted to evaluate caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) transmission among sheep using 15 lambs that were distributed in 2 experimental groups. The exposed group consisted of 10 lambs that remained with their mothers, who were experimentally infected with CAEV. The non-exposed group was characterized as the control group and was comprised of 5 lambs that remained with their CAEV-negative mothers. Blood samples were collected monthly from birth until 1 year of life. To evaluate the transmission, an agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID), enzyme immunoassay (ELISA), immunoblotting (IB), and nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) techniques were used. The non-exposed group was negative in all of the tests throughout the whole experiment. In the exposed group, 2 individuals had positive nPCR results. Positive nPCR samples were sequenced for comparison with the original goat strains and were shown to be similar to the CAEV-Cork strain. Seroconversion was not detected, and clinical manifestations were not observed. Thus, after 1 year of observation, it was verified that CAEV transmission among sheep is possible; however, with discreet frequency. This was an initial study, and other experiments are needed to analyze the adaptive capacity of the CAEV to remain in an infected sheep flock and cause the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE) is a chronic viral disease of domestic goats caused by a member of lentivirus of the family Retroviridae. In this study, the prevalence of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus in two governorates in Egypt was investigated. A total of 176 serum samples were collected from local (Egyptian Nubian, Egyptian Baladi which is the native breed) and foreign breeds (Barki and Shami) of goats from ten flocks from different localities in Behera and Alexandria governorates. Enzyme-linked-immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) was employed for detection of anti -p28 antibodies directed against CAEV. Sero prevalence on the herd level was 30% (3/10 herds were positive). Sero prevalence on the individual level was 8.52%. All sero positive animals were from the breed Barki (15/106) at a percentage of 14.15%. Higher percentages of positive animals were recorded in females and at age between 4-5 years. All serologically positive cases (15) were in animals raised by open system (132), at a percentage of 11.36%. There was 100% correlation between the results of ELISA test in caprine serum and milk whey samples. In conclusion: The best of our knowledge this is the first study recorded the presence of caprine arthritis encephalitis in Egypt and further study to characterize the virus and wider seroprevalence study is required. The Milk whey ELISA test proved to be accurate simple non-invasive technique for surveillance of the disease on herd bases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Picobirnavirus (PBV) is recognized as a putative cause of diarrhea and respiratory illnesses. Although PBV has been reported in several mammalian (including humans) and avian host species, data pertaining to its presence in small ruminants are limited. We report, here, PBV infection in small ruminants (ovine and caprine), in India. From January 2015 to December 2017, 400 samples were tested for the presence of PBV, using an RT-PCR assay specific for the genome segment-2. The overall rate of PBV infection was 35.75% (143/400), being higher in caprines (42.35%, 83/196) than in ovines (29.42%, 60/204). Viral genogrouping showed the predominance of PBV genogroup I (GG-I; 53.15%, 76/173), the detection of genogroup II (GG-II; 3.49%, 5/143), a concomitant infection with GG-I and GG-II (38.47%, 55/143), and un-typeable strains (4.9%, 7/143). Of note, these PBV strains exhibit low sequence identity (11.2% to 70.7%) to other reported PBV isolates from humans and other animals. By phylogenetic analysis, camel PBV isolates from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the reference human GG-I strain (1-CHN-97) from China were found to be the nearest neighbors of PBV strains. Furthermore, sequence analysis revealed the possible appearance of a new genogroup/genetic cluster and the existence of high genetic heterogeneity in the circulating PBV strains. Although much remains to be understood about the epidemiology and impact of PBV, the present study demonstrates the high prevalence of GG-I, the detection of GG-II, and the possible emergence of new genogroup/genetic cluster in small ruminant populations in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, the 75% alcoholic fractionation of excretory-secretory (ES) antigen isolated from 200 to 300 live P. epiclitum was assessed for its diagnostic potential for the detection of caprine amphistomosis by using antibody detection enzyme immunoassay. Prior to enzyme immunoassay, 75% alcoholic fractionation of excretory-secretory (ES) antigen was subjected to SDS- PAGE and western blot analysis for the presence of immunoreactive polypeptides. SDS-PAGE analysis of ES antigen resolved a total 7 polypeptides bands of size 56, 27, 25, 22.5, 12, 11 and 10 kDa. Western blot analysis revealed only two immunoreactive polypeptides (11 kDa and 12 kDa) when polypeptides resolved in SDS-PAGE were probed with known positive pooled serum. None of the polypeptides showed reactions with pooled known negative serum. The working dilutions of antigen, sera and conjugates were determined by checkerboard titration for employing ELISA and cut-off O.D. was calculated 0.616 by using the mean absorbance value of 11 negative kid sera. The sensitivity and specificity of ELISA was found to be 100% and 86.76%, respectively. As per kappa value estimation, the strength of agreement was found to be good. Antibodies to 75% alcoholic fractionation of ES antigen was detected in 20% goats (n = 160) of either sex, although faecal examination detected 10.6% goats to be infected with amphistomosis. The study confirmed that 75% alcoholic fractionation of ES antigen of P. epiclitum based ELISA had good value for serodiagnosis of caprine amphistomosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) is an important viral disease of small ruminants particularly in dairy goats with severe social and economic implication. Hence, this study was designed to determine the seroprevalence of CAE virus (CAEV) among goat population in selected small ruminant farms in Selangor and the risk factors associated with the occurrence of the disease. Materials and Methods: Blood samples were collected from a total of 91 goats selected at random. Blood serum was harvested and used for competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test to detect antibodies against CAE virus. Results: The result obtained showed that 8/91 (8.8%) of the goats were seropositive for CAEV. In addition, biosecurity management, source of origin and sex of the animal were observed to be important risk factors associated with the occurrence of CAE in goats. Conclusion: The findings of this study affirmed that the seroprevalence of CAEV infection among goat population in small ruminant farms in Selangor, Malaysia, is low. However, there is need to institute strict control measures such as testing and culling positive animals or separation of infected animals from those that tested negative to the disease for effective eradication of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was undertaken in middle of Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Bluetongue (BT) is endemic throughout the country. However, Caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAE) is sporadically reported from India. The study was undertaken to evaluate the burden of these viral diseases of goat due to unavailability of systemic study in the region. Commercial ELISA kits were used for the study. BTV antibody sero-surveillance was undertaken in 504 random serum samples and Lentivirus antibody sero-surveillance for CAE in 280 random serum samples. None of the goats covered under the study had any form of clinical manifestations of these diseases. The study revealed moderate (15.64%) sero-positivity of BTV antibody and only two cases of sero-positivity of CAE. Two positive cases of CAE in Sirohi breed was brought from Rajasthan. Overall sero-positivity of BTV antibody in male was higher than female goats. The binary regression of circulating BTV antibody was significant for Sirohi and Black Bengal breeds under the study indicating breed differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roughly one-fourth of goats infected with small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) develop caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE). We compared the profile of antibody response to surface glycoprotein (SU), and combined transmembrane glycoprotein and capsid protein (TM/CA) in SRLV-infected arthritic and asymptomatic goats, and determined the ability of 2 commercial ELISAs to distinguish between arthritic and asymptomatic goats. We used sera from 312 SRLV-seropositive dairy goats in a whole-virus ELISA; 222 were collected from arthritic goats and 90 from apparently healthy goats. Sera were screened with a competitive inhibition ELISA based on SU antigen (SU-ELISA) and an indirect ELISA based on TM and CA antigens (TM/CA-ELISA). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were prepared for both ELISAs, and areas under the ROC curves (AUC) were compared. The proportion of goats with antibody response stronger to SU antigen than to TM/CA antigen was significantly higher among arthritic than asymptomatic goats (58.1% vs. 28.9%; p < 0.001). Antibody response to SU antigen was a good predictor of the arthritic form of CAE: AUC for SU-ELISA was 89.7% (95% CI: 85.2%, 94.2%), compared to 59.3% (95% CI: 51.9%, 66.8%) for TM/CA-ELISA (p < 0.001). With the cutoff set at percentage of inhibition of 56%, SU-ELISA had sensitivity of 86.9% (95% CI: 81.9%, 90.7%) and specificity of 84.4% (95% CI: 75.6%, 90.5%) in discriminating between arthritic and asymptomatic goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted to compare haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations between goats with clinical form of caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE), small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV)-infected goats without clinical symptoms, and apparently healthy goats without SRLV infection, in order to investigate clinical application of determination of Hp and SAA level in detecting goats with symptomatic CAE. One hundred sixty eight adult (at least 2 year-old) dairy female goats of two Polish local breeds were enrolled in the study. All were clinically examined for emaciation and arthritis, and serologically tested for SRLV infection using three different ELISAs. On this basis goats were classed into SRLV-positive symptomatic (n = 68), SRLV-positive asymptomatic (n = 23) and healthy (n = 77). Hp and SAA levels were determined in serum samples using commercial colorimetric assay and solid phase sandwich ELISA, respectively. Both Hp and SAA concentrations were significantly higher in the SRLV-positive symptomatic group compared to the SRLV-positive asymptomatic (p = 0.002 and 0.012, respectively), and healthy (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001, respectively). The latter two groups did not differ (p = 0.627 and p = 0.777, respectively), and were merged into a single control group (n = 100) for the needs of accuracy calculation. Areas under receiver operating characteristic curve were 68.0% (CI 95%: 59.3%, 76.7%) for Hp and 65.8% (CI 95%: 57.5%, 74.2%) for SAA. The study showed that, although Hp and SAA concentrations were significantly higher in goats with symptomatic CAE, a single measurement of Hp or SAA concentration was unlikely to play any practical role in assessing health status of SRLV-infected goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs), which comprise caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) and maedi-visna virus (MVV), are prevalent in goats and sheep worldwide, including in Japan. However, little is known about the molecular characteristics of goat lentiviruses in Japan. In this study, a molecular and phylogenetic analysis of the long gag region was performed. The phylogenic tree demonstrated that all samples belonged to SRLV subtype B1. Two clusters were identified, with one cluster distinct from previously reported strains of subtype B1. In addition, several alterations in the amino acid sequence were detected in immunodominant epitopes of the gag region. To gain a deeper understanding of the genetic diversity of SRLVs in Japan, it will be necessary to increase the sample size and conduct a broader survey. The present report is important for establishing baseline information on the prevalence of SRLV in Japan and providing data to develop a new, more sensitive diagnostic test for effective control of SRLV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope analysis is an essential investigative technique, complementary to more traditional zooarchaeological approaches to elucidating animal keeping practices. Carbon (δC) and nitrogen (δN) stable isotope values of 132 domesticates (cattle, caprines and pigs) were evaluated to investigate one aspect of animal keeping, animal forage, at the Late Chalcolithic (mid-fourth millennium BC) site of Çamlıbel Tarlası, which is located in north-central Anatolia. The analyses indicated that all of the domesticates had diets based predominantly on C plants. Pig and caprine δC and δN values were found to be statistically indistinguishable. However, cattle exhibited distinctive stable isotope values and, therefore, differences in diet from both pigs and caprines at Çamlıbel Tarlası. This difference may relate to the distinct patterns of foraging behaviour exhibited by the domesticates. Alternatively, this diversity may result from the use of different grazing areas or from the foddering practices of the Çamlıbel Tarlası inhabitants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted to evaluate influence of the true within-herd prevalence of small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection on agreement beyond chance between three different types of commercial serological ELISAs. Blood samples were collected from 865 goats from 12 dairy goat herds. Serum samples were tested using three commercial ELISA kits: whole-virus indirect ELISA (wELISA), indirect ELISA based on recombined TM and CA antigens (TM/CA-ELISA), and competitive-inhibition ELISA based on SU antigen (SU-ELISA). Herds were classed into three prevalence strata of high (>50%), moderate (10–50%) and low (<10%) true within-herd prevalence of SRLV infection. The latter was estimated on the basis of results of wELISA adjusted by its sensitivity and specificity. Agreement beyond chance between the three ELISAs was assessed at two levels. First, the general agreement was determined using two coefficients corrected for chance-agreement: Cohen’s kappa and Gwet’s AC 1 . Then, agreement between tests was evaluated using Gwet’s AC 1 separately in the three prevalence strata and compared between them by computing 95% confidence intervals for differences with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. The general agreement between the three tests was very good: wELISA and TM/CA-ELISA – Cohen’s kappa of 81.8% (CI 95%: 77.9% to 85.7%), Gwet’s AC 1 of 82.7% (CI 95%: 79.0% to 86.4%); wELISA and SU-ELISA – Cohen’s kappa of 83.2% (CI 95%: 79.4% to 86.9%), Gwet’s AC 1 of 83.9% (CI 95%: 80.4% to 87.5%); TM/CA-ELISA and SU-ELISA – Cohen’s kappa of 86.0% (CI 95%: 82.6% to 89.5%), Gwet’s AC 1 of 86.9% (CI 95%: 83.6% to 90.1%). However, agreement between ELISAs was significantly related to the within-herd true prevalence – it was significantly lower (although still high) when within-herd true prevalence was moderate (Gwet’s AC 1 between 67.2% and 78.7%), whereas remained very high, when true within-herd prevalence was either >50% (Gwet’s AC 1 between 91.9% and 98.8%) or <10% (Gwet’s AC 1 between 94.7% and 98.4%). Concluding, the three different commercial ELISAs for SRLV infection in goats available on the market yield highly consistent results. However, their agreement is affected by the true within-herd prevalence in a tested population, and the worse (although still high) agreement should be expected, when the percentage of infected goats is moderate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exact influence of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) infection on blood and milk polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs) and monocyte/macrophages of goats remains unclear. Thus, the present study sought to explore the blood and milk PMNL and monocyte/macrophage functions in naturally CAEV-infected goats. The present study used 18 healthy Saanen goats that were segregated according to sera test outcomes into serologically CAEV negative (n = 8; 14 halves) and positive (n = 10; 14 halves) groups. All milk samples from mammary halves with milk bacteriologically positive outcomes, somatic cell count ≥2 × 10 6 cells mL −1 , and abnormal secretions in the strip cup test were excluded. We evaluated the percentage of blood and milk PMNLs and monocyte/macrophages, the viability of PMNLs and monocyte/macrophages, the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the nonopsonized phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli by flow cytometry. In the present study, a higher percentage of milk macrophages (CD14 + ) and milk polymorphonuclear leukocytes undergoing late apoptosis or necrosis (Annexin-V + /Propidium iodide + ) was observed in CAEV-infected goats; we did not find any further alterations in blood and milk PMNL and monocyte/macrophage functions. Thus, regarding our results, the goats naturally infected with CAEV did not reveal pronounced dysfunctions in blood and milk polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocytes/macrophages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3) proteins are mammalian-specific cellular deaminases and have a robust ability to restrain lentivirus replication. To antagonize APOBEC3-mediated antiviral action, lentiviruses have acquired viral infectivity factor (Vif ) as an accessory gene. Mammalian APOBEC3 proteins inhibit lentiviral replication by enzymatically inserting G-to-A hypermutations in the viral genome, whereas lentiviral Vif proteins degrade host APOBEC3 via the ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent pathway. Recent investigations provide evidence that lentiviral vif genes evolved to combat mammalian APOBEC3 proteins. In corollary, mammalian APOBEC3 genes are under Darwinian selective pressure to escape from antagonism by Vif. Based on these observations, it is widely accepted that lentiviral Vif and mammalian APOBEC3 have co-evolved and this concept is called an "evolutionary arms race." This review provides a comprehensive summary of current knowledge with respect to the evolutionary dynamics occurring at this pivotal host-virus interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) in goats is a complex disease syndrome caused by a lentivirus. This persistent viral infection results in arthritis in adult goats and encephalitis in lambs. The prognosis for the encephalitic form is normally poor, and this form of the disease has caused substantial economic losses for goat farmers. Hence, a more efficient detection platform based on recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) and a lateral flow dipstick (LFD) was developed in the present study for detecting the proviral DNA of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV). Under the optimal incubation conditions, specifically, 30 min at 37 °C for RPA followed by 5 min at room temperature for LFD, the assay was found to be sensitive to a lower limit of 80 pg of total DNA and 10 copies of plasmid DNA. Furthermore, there was no cross-reaction with other tested viruses, including goat pox virus and bovine leukemia virus. Given its simplicity and portability, this RPA-LFD protocol can serve as an alternative tool to ELISA for the primary screening of CAEV, one that is suitable for both laboratory and field application. When the RPA-LFD was applied in parallel with serological ELISA for the detection of CAEV in field samples, the RPA-LFD assay exhibited a higher sensitivity than the traditional method, and 82% of the 200 samples collected in Taiwan were found to be positive. To our knowledge, this is the first report providing evidence to support the use of an RPA-LFD assay as a specific and sensitive platform for detecting CAEV proviral DNA in goats in a faster manner, one that is also applicable for on-site utilization at farms and that should be useful in both eradication programs and epidemiological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis is a cosmopolitan disease that affects small ruminant production and causes economic losses. Although the virus has been identified in different parts of the female reproductive tract, including the uterus, there is a lack of studies that discussed its vertical transmission. The aim of this study was to evaluate the transmission of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) from naturally infected females to their offspring. Five known positive goats for CAEV were artificially inseminated with fresh semen obtained from a known negative male for CAEV. After parturition, twelve kids were followed for 12 months, and the vertical transmission of CAEV was studied by applying agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID), competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) and nested-polimerase chain reaction (nested-PCR). From a total of 12 kids, six were positive in nested-PCR. None of them was positive in cELISA and AGID. This study demonstrated the vertical transmission of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus to the kids. The presence of infected females must be avoided due to the rapid spread of the virus and the economic losses associated with the infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious diseases in goats, CAE in particular have widely affected the productivity of this animal and greatly affected the farmers and the small ruminant industry. Molecular technique such as LAMP has been applied to detect the CAEV proviral DNA specifically and sensitively but this technique has its own drawback. Gold is the most widely used nanoparticle (NP) which has excellent properties such as high surface area and compatibility with biomolecules. In this study, gold nanoparticle (AuNP) conjugated with modified oligonucleotides or gold nanoprobe (AuPr) was used to detect CAEV proviral DNA in LAMP product. The hybridization of AuPr to a complementary sequence on the LAMP product made the gold resistant to high salt concentration. This resistance or non-resistance of the AuNP is observed as color change in the mixture. This study, reported a simple method of visual detection of CAEV proviral DNA in LAMP product using AuPr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Switzerland, viruses belonging to two different phylogenetic groups of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) are currently circulating: the caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) and visna/maedi virus (VMV). In the past two decades, a mandatory national control program has led to a very low prevalence of seropositivity, while completely eliminating CAE as a clinical manifestation. However, in order to reduce the high costs and effort associated with this program, adjustments based on the most recent epidemiological knowledge are needed. The purpose of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence of CAEV and VMV using the newest diagnostic tools available, and to identify potential risk factors for infection with these viruses in Switzerland. For the prevalence estimation, a census was carried out including 10,696 farms with a total of 85,454 goats. Blood samples were analysed using a 3-step serological testing algorithm consisting of Chekit ELISA, Western Blot and SU5 ELISA. A risk factor analysis was conducted using logistic regression models built with data obtained from a mail questionnaire, and serological results from the census. The apparent herd-level prevalences were 0.38%, 2.77%, and 3.04% for CAEV, VMV and SRLV, respectively. Animal-level prevalences were 0.06% for CAEV, 0.55% for VMV, and 0.61% for SRLV. No statistically significant risk factors associated with CAEV or VMV infection were identified. However, the proportional high number of CAEV seropositive dwarf goats, in relation to their population size, could indicate that these hobby breeds may slip through some of the official controls. For an infection with SRLV, a medium herd size (7–40 goats) was found to be protective, compared with smaller (OR = 1.90, p = 0.034) and larger herds (OR = 1.95, p = 0.038). In conclusion, considering that all CAEV positive animals were culled, these results imply that CAEV is no longer actively spreading and has successfully been controlled in Switzerland. However, given the uncertain pathogenic potential of VMV in goats, future surveillance should also be taking into account the not insignificant number of VMV circulating in the Swiss goat population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a large-scale serological survey of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) infection was conducted between March 2011 and October 2012. 3,437 goat blood or milk samples were collected from 65 goat farms throughout Taiwan. A commercial ELISA kit was used to detect antibodies against CAEV. The overall seropositive rate was 61.7% (2,120/3,437) in goats and in 98.5% (64/65) of goat farms. These results provide the first large-scale serological evidence for the presence of CAEV infection, indicating that the disease is widespread in Taiwan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have investigated the influence of infection with Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus (CAEV), developed clinical arthritis and recorded subclinical mastitis on the length of lactation, milk yield and its composition per lactation. The study was carried out on the sample of 808 goats of French Alpine breed from production farms in Croatia. Samples of blood were taken for serological tests and milk samples for subclinical mastitis detection. Presence of clinical arthritis was noted by inspection and palpation of the joints. Lactation and production data were collected by Croatian Agricultural Agency. The influence of infection status for CAEV and clinical arthritis, separately, were tested on milk yield, length of lactation and milk composition (fat, protein and lactose) using GLM procedure for models including the year of measurement, lactation number of the animal and subclinical mastitis record. CAEV was serologically confirmed in 53.72 % of the total number of goats. From the total sample 23.08 % were infected with CAEV with confirmed subclinical mastitis of bacteriological etiology. In addition, 22.47 % of the total sample had clinical arthritis. Of the total sample 16.95 % were CAEV infected and with diagnosed clinical arthritis. Influence of virus infection was confirmed on all of the analyzed traits, with lower production results. Clinical arthritis had significant influence on decrease in most of analyzed traits, exceptions being total milk, fat amount (%) and lactose content (%) and amount (kg). Diagnosed subclinical mastitis was not found to be significant influence in models of duration of lactation, or fat, protein and lactose content (%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The carboxyl-functionalized nanoporous graphene (NG-COOH) as solid phase sorbent was prepared and investigated in a new and simple ultrasound assisted-dispersive-ionic liquid-micro-solid phase extraction (US-D-IL-μ-SPE) procedure for rapid preconcentration and speciation of trace Hg (II) and R-Hg (CH 3 Hg + and C 2 H 5 Hg + ) in water and caprine blood samples. Both of inorganic and organic mercury were extracted by NG-COOH at pH 8. Hydrophobic ionic liquid (IL) was used to fast trap of the mercury loaded sorbent from the sample solution. The loaded NG-COOH/IL phase was then eluted by 500 μL of HNO 3 (0.3 mol L − 1 ) and finally Hg (II) concentration of the eluent phase was determined with flow injection-cold vapor-atomic absorption spectrometry (FI-CV-AAS) after dilution with deionized water up to 1 mL. By microwave assisted-UV system, organic mercury (R-Hg) species of the eluent were converted to Hg (II) and total Hg amount was also measured. Finally, R-Hg content was determined by mathematically subtracting the Hg (II) content from the total Hg. Under the optimal conditions, the linear range, limit of detection and preconcentration factor were obtained 0.03–6.3 μg L − 1 , 0.0098 μg L − 1 and 10.4 for caprine blood samples, respectively (RSD < 3%). The developed method was successfully applied to natural water and human/caprine blood samples. The Validation of methodology was confirmed by two standard reference materials (SRM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The risk of transmission of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) during embryo transfer has been demonstrated in vivo through the detection of CAEV proviral DNA in: (1) flushing media for embryo collection; (2) cells of the cumulus oophorus surrounding the oocytes, ovarian follicle, oviduct and uterine tissues; and (3) testis, epididymis, vas deferens and vesicular glands. Experimentally infected embryos without a zona pellucida (ZP), washed 10 times with Minimum Essential Media (MEM) and 5% Fetal Calf Serum (FCS) solution, were capable of transmitting CAEV. In vitro we demonstrated that granulosa, oviductal, epididymal and embryo cells are fully susceptible to CAEV infection and allow active replication. However, AI with in vitro-infected semen can result in the production, after ten washing, of CAEV-free embryos, and ten washing in vitro- or in vivo-infected embryos with an intact ZP, or ten washing oocytes with an intact ZP, resulted in the production of virus-free female gametes or embryos that can be used for IVF or embryo transfer. Therefore, we have demonstrated that: (1) that CAEV-free embryos can be produced by IVF using spermatozoa infected in vitro by CAEV; and (2) embryo transfer can be used under field conditions to produce CAEV-free kids from CAEV-infected biological mothers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contents During the last decades, physiological effects of oestrogens have been increasingly explored by scientists and biotechnologists. Estrogens exert a wide range of effects on a large variety of cell types. Oestrogen and its receptors are essential for sexual development and reproduction. Estrogen receptor alpha is a nuclear receptor activated by the hormone oestrogen. In male, ERα is encoded by the gene estrogen receptor gene 1 ( ESR1), responsible for better fertility. The ESR1 is involved in the reabsorption of luminal fluid during the transit of spermatozoa from the testis to the head of the epididymis which is important for their survival and maturation during epididymal storage. The absence of ESR1 leads to reduced epididymal sperm content, reduced sperm motility and fertilizing ability. Therefore, this is a good startby to study the expression pattern of estrogen receptor 1 gene in high-fertile (G1) and low-fertile (G2) bucks of Jamunapari and Barbari breeds identified on the basis of seminal quality traits and fertility trials. RNA was extracted from the tissues by TRIzol method. The identification and expression pattern of caprine ESR1 gene was analysed by real-time PCR (Roche LC-480). Our work shows that the relative quantification by RT- PCR indicates more fold in head of epididymis as compared to spleen of caprine ESR1 gene. Furthermore, the RT- PCR indicated that fertile bucks of Jamunapari breed have more fold value as compared to Barbari breed in respect of reproductive organ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sepsis is a serious health problem associated with a range of infectious diseases in animals and humans. Early events of this syndrome can be mimicked by experimental administration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Compared with mice, small ruminants and humans are highly sensitive to LPS, making goats valuable in inflammatory models. We performed a longitudinal study in eight Norwegian dairy goats that received LPS (0.1 μg/kg, Escherichia coli O26:B6) intravenously. A control group of five goats received corresponding volumes of sterile saline. Clinical examinations were performed continuously, and blood samples were collected throughout the trial. Results: Characteristic signs of acute sepsis, such as sickness behavior, fever, and leukopenia were observed within 1 h of LPS administration. A high-throughput longitudinal gene expression analysis of circulating leukocytes was performed, and genes associated with the acute phase response, type I interferon signaling, LPS cascade and apoptosis, in addition to cytokines and chemokines were targeted. Pro-inflammatory genes, such as IL1B, CCL3 and IL8, were significantly up-regulated. Interestingly, increased mRNA levels of seven interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) were observed peaking at 2 h, corroborating the increasing evidence that ISGs respond immediately to bacterial endotoxins. A slower response was manifested by four extrahepatic acute phase proteins (APP) (SAA3, HP, LF and LCN2) reaching maximum levels at 5 h. Conclusions: We report an immediate induction of ISGs in leukocytes in response to LPS supporting a link between the interferon system and defense against bacterial infections. The extrahepatic expression of APPs suggests that leukocytes contribute to synthesis of these proteins at the beginning of a systemic inflammation. Taken together, these findings provide insights into the dynamic regulation of innate immune genes, as well as raising new questions regarding the importance of ISGs and extrahepatic APPs in leukocytes after systemic endotoxin challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Previous studies confirmed that classical scrapie can be transmitted via milk in sheep. The current study aimed to investigate whether scrapie can also be transmitted via goat milk using in vivo (new-born lambs fed milk from scrapie-affected goats due to the unavailability of goat kids from guaranteed scrapie-free herds) and in vitro methods (serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification [sPMCA] on milk samples). Results: In an initial pilot study, new-born lambs of two different prion protein gene (PRNP) genotypes (six VRQ/ VRQ and five ARQ/ARQ) were orally challenged with 5 g brain homogenate from two scrapie-affected goats to determine susceptibility of sheep to goat scrapie. All sheep challenged with goat scrapie brain became infected based on the immunohistochemical detection of disease-associated PrP (PrPsc) in lymphoid tissue, with an ARQ/ ARQ sheep being the first to succumb. Subsequent feeding of milk to eight pairs of new-born ARQ/ARQ lambs, with each pair receiving milk from a different scrapie-affected goat, resulted in scrapie in the six pairs that received the largest volume of milk (38-87 litres per lamb), whereas two pairs fed 8-9 litres per lamb, and an environmental control group raised on sheep milk from healthy ewes, did not show evidence of infection when culled at up to 1882 days of age. Infection in those 12 milk recipients occurred regardless of the clinical status, PrPsc distribution, caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus infection status and PRNP polymorphisms at codon 142 (II or IM) of the donor goats, but survival time was influenced by PRNP polymorphisms at codon 141. Serial PMCA applied to a total of 32 milk samples (four each from the eight donor goats collected throughout lactation) detected PrPsc in one sample each from two goats. Conclusions: The scrapie agent was present in the milk from infected goats and was able to transmit to susceptible species even at early preclinical stage of infection, when PrPsc was undetectable in the brain of the donor goats. Serial PMCA as a PrPsc detection method to assess the risk of scrapie transmission via milk in goats proved inefficient compared to the bioassay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) infection is existing worldwide causing economic loss in goat production. This work was conducted to investigate the prevalence of CAE in local and foreign goat breeds and sheep in different localities in Sudan. Materials and methods: A total of 368 sera samples were prepared; among these, 112 were collected from cross (n=39) and foreign (n=73) breeds of goat in Khartoum state, equal number of sera (n=23) were collected from goats and sheep from each of River Nile, Gedarif, Sinnar and North Kordofan states. Eighteen cross bred goats were tested from River Nile state. From foreign bred goats, 28 and 26 sera were collected from Gazira and Northern states, respectively. The collected sera were examined for the presence of antibodies to CAE virus using Enzymed-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Results: The overall seroprevalence of CAE was 2.99% (n=11/368). Positive results were found only in 11 of foreign breed of goats (Cyprus shami) collected from Gazira (39.29%; n=11/28). Statistically, there was an association between breed and location (P=0.001 and P=0.671, respectively). Conclusion: The CAE virus infection exists only in foreign goat breeds. Gazira state showed the highest seroprevalence as compared to other states considered in this study. Strict hygienic measures should be adopted to control the disease and to prevent its spread to local breeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A serological survey of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) infection was conducted from September 2006 to February 2007 in Japan. A total of 857 serum samples were collected from 113 herds in 28 prefectures and were analyzed for the presence of CAEV antibodies using agar gel immunodiffusion test. The seroprevalence of CAEV infection at the herd and animal levels was 15.0% (17/113) and 10.0% (86/857), respectively. Large farms with more than 10 goats and with animals for dairy and breeding purposes had higher seroprevalence (P<0.05). The results of this study provide useful information to consider effective control programs against CAEV infection in Japan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amostras de sangue de 12 animais soropositivos pelo teste de imunodifusão em gel de agarose e que não apresentavam sinais clínicos sugestivos de infecção pelo vírus da artrite-encefalite caprina (CAEV) foram coletadas para isolamento viral. Mácrofagos derivados de monócitos foram co-cultivados com células de membrana sinovial caprina (MSC), resultando em cinco amostras que apresentaram efeito citopático característico do tipo persistente, semelhante ao observado para o CAEV. Uma técnica de reação em cadeia de polimerase (PCR) foi padronizada para amplificar parte do gene gag do genoma pró-viral, codificante para a proteína do capsídeo viral (p25). As cinco amostras foram amplificadas pela PCR e três delas, BR-UFMG/PL1, BR-UFMG/PL2 e BR-UFMG/PL3, foram seqüenciadas diretamente dos seus produtos de PCR. O alinhamento múltiplo das seqüências obtidas com outras de lentivírus de pequenos ruminantes (LVPR), obtidas no GenBank, e o dendrograma revelaram que as novas amostras de CAEV são únicas e distintas das demais amostras de LVPR, possuindo maior identidade de nucleotídeos e aminoácidos entre si e com as amostras de CAEV do que com a do vírus maedi-visna.Blood samples from 12 seropositive animals by agar gel immunodifusion test (AGID) showing no evident clinical signs of disease were taken to attempt caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) isolation. Monocyte-derived macrophages were co-cultured with goat synovial membrane cells (GSM) resulting in five virus isolations, which presented cytophatic effects of the persistent type, resembling those observed for CAEV. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was designed to amplify a portion of the gag proviral gene coding for the major core protein (p25). All of the five isolates were amplified by this PCR and three of them named BR-UFMG/PL1, BR-UFMG/PL2 and BR-UFMG/PL3, were sequenced directly from their PCR products. Multiple sequence analysis and a dendrogram including other sequences from the GenBank database showed that these Brazilian isolates are unique and distinct from those of known caprine and ovine lentiviruses, with a higher identity of nucleotide and deduced aminoacids to each other and to CAEV than to maedi-visna virus.

Vinte e quatro caprinos de uma semana de idade, soronegativos pela imunodifusão em gel de agar para artrite encefalite caprina (AEC), foram utilizados para estudo de infecção experimental pelo vírus da AEC. Dezesseis animais foram inoculados com lentivirus caprino, amostra Cork, oito pela via intravenosa e oito por instilação nasal. Oito animais serviram como controle, inoculados pelas vias intranasal ou intravenosa com 1ml de meio de cultura de células não infectadas. Os animais foram sacrificados aos 2, 6, 12 e 20 dias pós-inoculação (PI), e colhidas amostras do sistema nervoso central, articulações, tonsilas, linfonodos, pulmões, rins, timo, baço e intestinos delgado e grosso para histopatologia e imunoistoquímica. Um animal inoculado com o vírus da AEC pela via intranasal e sacrificado aos 20 dias PI apresentou imunomarcação positiva em um macrófago alveolar. Concluiu-se que a via aerógena é uma provável rota de infecção pelo vírus da AEC.The caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) experimental infection was studied in 24 one-week-old seronegative kids. Sixteen kids were inoculated with CAEV-Cork, with 10(6) TCID50/ml concentration, being eight inoculated intravenously, and eight intranasally. Eight animals were used as controls, being four inoculated intravenously, and four intranasally with non-infected cell culture medium. Since the day of the inoculation, clinical evaluation was performed daily, until the day of the sacrifice. Blood samples were taken for serological tests. The animals were killed in pairs at 2, 6, 12 and 20 days post-inoculation (PI) and tissues samples of central nervous system, joints, tonsils, lymphonodes, lungs, kidneys, thymus, spleen, small and large intestine were collected for histopathological and immunohistochemical studies. One animal CAEV inoculated intranasally and killed at 20 days PI showed immunohistochemical positive reaction in an alveolar macrophage. It was concluded that transmission by air is a probable rote of CAEV infection.

Small ruminant lentiviruses infect goats and sheep, inducing clinical disease in a minority of infected animals. Following an eradication campaign, clinical cases may disappear in a population. The complete elimination of these lentiviruses is however difficult to achieve and the spreading of less virulent strains often parallels the elimination of their virulent counterparts. Here, we characterized three such strains isolated from a flock in the post-eradication phase. We completely sequenced their genomes, showing that one of the isolates was most probably the product of a recombination event between the other two viruses. By comparing the sequences of these isolates with those of virulent strains, we found evidence that particular LTR mutations may explain their attenuated phenotype. Finally, we constructed an infectious molecular clone representative of these viruses, analyzing its replication characteristics in different target cells. This clone will permit us to explore the molecular correlates of cytopathogenicity and virulence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the recovery of proteins from whey caprine cheese which is mostly discarded as waste. A membrane process including microfiltration and tangential ultrafiltration was used to purify and concentrate the protein solution, reaching a 91.4 g/100 g of protein concentration. The concentrate was then freeze-dried and characterized. The good emulsifying properties, high water and oil holding capacity and the rheological behavior suggested the application of the whey protein concentrate in the formulation of a dressing. Physico-chemical characterization indicated that the samples were similar to a commercial dressing in viscosity, texture, moisture and ash contain. Also the sensory analysis demonstrated a good acceptance mainly in color and flavor of the samples. However, the protein content of the product: 0.97 ± 0.12 g/100 g, duplicated the value of the commercial sample incorporating higher added-value to a product with high consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine arthritis-encephalitis is an economically important disease of goats. It is evident that horizontal transmission through respiratory secretions and milk plays an important part in the disease spread whereas the role of sexual transmission remains questionable. The cross-sectional study was carried out to investigate the relationship between presence of small ruminant lentivirus (SRL V)-seropositive bucks and seroprevalence of SRL V infection in does in herds. The analysis included 76 goat herds seropositive for SRL V infection. A sample of adult female goats from each herd was selected in a simple random fashion. All males present in a herd were also enrolled in the study. The animals were screened with commercial serological immunoenzymatic tests. Standardized questionnaires were used to gather knowledge of 3 hypothesized herd-level confounding factors: number of years for which a herd had existed until testing, goat replacement from other herds in Poland and use of machine milking. Three-level hierarchical linear regression model was developed to evaluate the relationship (α = 0.05). Median (interquartile range) within-herd seroprevalence of SRL V was 60.1% (35.7% to 87.9%) and 35.8% (10.1% to 49.6%) in herds where seropositive males were present and absent, respectively. Controlling for possible confounders presence of SRL V-seropositive bucks proved to be an independent factor linked to the higher within-herd seroprevalence of SRL V (p = 0.001). The study indicates that seropositive bucks may facilitate the spread of SRL V infection in goat herds and therefore their presence should be considered as a risk factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Mccp), is a devastating disease of domestic goats and of some wild ungulate species. The disease is currently spreading in Africa and Asia and poses a serious threat to disease-free areas. A comprehensive view of the evolutionary history and dynamics of Mccp is essential to understand the epidemiology of CCPP. Yet, analysing the diversity of genetically monomorphic pathogens, such as Mccp, is complicated due to their low variability. In this study, the molecular epidemiology and evolution of CCPP was investigated using a large-scale genomic approach based on next-generation sequencing technologies, applied to a sample of strains representing the global distribution of this disease. A highly discriminatory multigene typing system was developed, allowing the differentiation of 24 haplotypes among 25 Mccp strains distributed in six genotyping groups, which showed some correlation with geographic origin. A Bayesian approach was used to infer the first robust phylogeny of the species and to date the principal events of its evolutionary history. The emergence of Mccp was estimated only at about 270 years ago, which explains the low genetic diversity of this species despite its high mutation rate, evaluated at 1.3 × 106 substitutions per site per year. Finally, plausible scenarios were proposed to elucidate the evolution and dynamics of CCPP in Asia and Africa, though limited by the paucity of Mccp strains, particularly in Asia. This study shows how combining large-scale genomic data with spatial and temporal data makes it possible to obtain a comprehensive view of the epidemiology of CCPP, a precondition for the development of improved disease surveillance and control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) causes caprine arthritis encephalitis syndrome, which is an emerging disease of goats in the Philippines. DNA sequence analysis showed homology of 86-93 % between Philippine CAEV and available CAEV sequences in GenBank. CAEV was detected using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and new sets of primers were designed in order to amplify the gag gene, which is a highly conserved region of the viral genome. In addition, the Philippine CAEV isolate clustered in group B with the prototype caprine lentivirus. Based on amino acid sequence alignments, it is possible that the Philippine CAEV isolate is a new strain of CAEV, but it is also possible that it was already present in the country even before the start of goat importation. Molecular characterization of the CAEV gag gene is important for the development of a detection kit specific for the local strain of CAEV and the establishment of small ruminant lentivirus eradication programs in the Philippines. This study is the first report to describe the molecular characteristics of CAEV circulating in the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) infection in goats induces genital vesicular-ulcerative lesions that strictly resemble the lesions induced by herpesvirus 2 in the human host. The immunosuppressive drug Mizoribine (MIZ) was found to increase the antiviral activity of Acyclovir (ACV) against herpesvirus infections, raising interesting perspectives on new combined therapeutic strategies. In this study the anti-CpHV-1 activity in vitro of ACV alone or in combination with MIZ was characterized. When applied alone at non-toxic concentrations, ACV had a slight effect on CpHV-1 replication while in combination with MIZ a dose-dependent inhibition of the virus yield was observed with an IC50 of ACV of 28.5 μM. These findings suggest that combined therapy of ACV and MIZ is potentially exploitable in the treatment of genital infection by herpesviruses. Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) infection in goats induces genital vesicular-ulcerative lesions that strictly resemble the lesions induced by herpesvirus 2 in the human host. The immunosuppressive drug Mizoribine (MIZ) was found to increase the antiviral activity of Acyclovir (ACV) against herpesvirus infections, raising interesting perspectives on new combined therapeutic strategies. In this study the anti-CpHV-1 activity in vitro of ACV alone or in combination with MIZ was characterized. When applied alone at non-toxic concentrations, ACV had a slight effect on CpHV-1 replication while in combination with MIZ a dose-dependent inhibition of the virus yield was observed with an IC50 of ACV of 28.5 μM. These findings suggest that combined therapy of ACV and MIZ is potentially exploitable in the treatment of genital infection by herpesviruses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Realizou-se a análise de parte do gene gag, que codifica para as proteínas do capsídeo viral, de 5 amostras de CAEV isolados de animais naturalmente infectados do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. As amostras foram analisadas por PCR e clivagem com enzimas de restrição (DdeI, HaeIII e NdeI). Fragmentos de aproximadamente 600 pb foram amplificados na PCR e submetidos à digestão enzimática. Os perfis obtidos foram comparados com as seqüências gag de 6 lentivírus de pequenos ruminantes.Os resultados obtidos permitiram separar as amostras em 3 grupos distintos. Os fragmentos observados foram diferentes dos descritos previamente.The gag gene of 5 CAEV samples, isolated from naturally infected goats from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, were analised by PCR and restriction endonuclease (DdeI, HaeIII e NdeI) digestion. Fragments of about 600 bp were amplified by PCR and submitted to enzymatic digestion. The patterns observed were compared with the corresponding gag sequences from 6 small ruminant lentiviruses. The results obtained allowed the separation of 3 distinct groups. The restriction fragment profiles observed were different from those previously described.

This study investigated the levels of mRNA for BMP15 , GDF9 and BMPR1B in preantral follicles, as well as in cumulus oocyte complex (COC) and follicular walls from antral follicles of healthy and CAEV infected goats by real-time PCR. In addition, the influence of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and EGF on activation of primordial follicles and on expression of mRNA for TNFa and its receptors in cultured ovarian tissue from healthy and infected goats was evaluated. The expression of BMP15 and GDF9 in primordial/primary follicles from infected goats was significantly higher than in healthy animals, whereas the expression of BMP15 and GDF9 in secondary follicles from infected goats was significantly lower. The expression of mRNA for BMP15 in follicular wall of antral follicles from infected goats was significantly higher than in healthy goats. CAEV infection did not influence the ability of primordial follicles to develop in vitro , but the presence of EGF in culture medium significantly increased follicular diameter in healthy and infected animals. Ovarian tissue from infected goats cultured in medium with PHA had primordial follicles with larger diameters than those from healthy animals. An increase of mRNAs for TNFα was observed after culturing tissue in presence of both EGF and PHA in healthy animals, but this same treatment promoted a reduction of mRNAs for TNFa and increase of TNFR2 transcripts in infected animals. In conclusion, CAEV influences the expression of mRNA for BMP15 and GDF9 in goat ovarian follicles and PHA and EGF differentially regulate the expression of TNFa and TNFR2 in cultured ovarian tissue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Studies have attempted to understand the importance of metalloproteinase (MMPs) in the pathogenesis of diseases caused by lentiviruses, being the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) the most investigated. Despite advances in studies with MMPs in others diseases, research correlating the presence and activity of gelatinases in animals affected by caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV), a lentiviruses, are incipient and there is a need for research aiming to understand the dynamic of these enzymes in animals infected and its relation to pathological condition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence and activity of the MMPs in blood serum of chronically infected bucks by CAEV. Materials, Methods & Results: The experiment was constituted by two groups (n = 5 each group). The first one was composed of five naturally infected bucks (4-5 years) and second group constituted of five seronegative bucks (3-4 years) for CAE. Serology was performed using the Western Blotting (WB) and confirmed by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). These bucks belong to the experimental flock at Embrapa Goats and Sheep and the seropositive bucks were confirmed for CAE in the first two years. Blood samples were collected by puncturing the jugular vein from animals and evaluated by zymography (SDS-PAGE) using gelatin as substratum. Clinical examination was performed by evaluating the temperature (T), cardiac frequency (FC), respiratory frequency (FR) and clinical articular index (IAC). The IAC was calculated by measuring the circumference of carpal joint and metacarpal bone height (difference between greater extent carpal and metacarpal lesser extent). In infected and control groups were found molecular mass bands of 66 kDa (MMP-2), 72 kDa (pro-MMP-2), 86 kDa (MMP-9) and 92 kDa (pro-MMP-9). The correlation analysis between respiratory frequency (RF), cardiac frequency (CF) and temperature (T°C), with MMPs activity (pro-MMP-2 and MMP-2), showed a negative and not significant correlation for RF (r = -0.1285) and T (r = -0.2588) and positive for CF (r = 0.01038), but not significant. Using the gel densitometry analysis it was observed higher activity (P < 0.05) of the pro-MMP-2 and MMP-2 in seropositive group. Discussion: The caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) is a multisystem infectious disease that causes production losses when present in flocks, especially the occurrence of arthritis. The higher activity of the MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9) in infected group to CAE suggests a role of these proteases in the chronic inflammatory process in goats. It can be explained by the fact that matrix metalloproteinases are regarded to be the key role molecules in inflammation and are involved in pathophysiological remodeling of the vascular wall. The variable presence of active and latent forms of MMP-9 in our study combined to an increased in the seropositive group activity corroborates the findings of other studies. In this study, only one seropositive animal demonstrated apparent arthritis although showed similar MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9) activity to others in the seropositive group, leads us to suggest that all the seropositive animals were stricken with an inflammatory process. Although there was statistical difference between the groups regarding to MMPs activity, this was not reflected on clinical symptoms in chronically infecetd animals, requiring further studies on this subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]