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The Antisecretory Factor (AF) is a protein that can reduce intestinal hypersecretion and various inflammation disorders in vivo. Discovered in many mammalian tissues and plasma, its mechanism of action remains unknown. Interestingly, its induction has been found to counteract vertigo in patients with Méniere's disease. This suggests an inherent ability to control body balance and posture, an activity that may play a role in cerebellar function. Therefore, it may be worthwhile to investigate whether this activity can inhibit neuronal cells involved in cerebellar circuitries and its potential action on enteric nervous system ganglia, which could explain its antisecretory effect in the intestine.Previously, we studied the role of AF on GABAA receptors in cerebellar granule cells, taking advantage of electrophysiology and evaluating the effects of the administration of AF-16, an AF peptide. Treatment with AF-16 increased GABAA receptor responses, especially those containing the α6 subunit. Here, we performed immunofluorescence experiments by staining α1 and α6 subunits before and after incubation with AF-16, analyzed super-resolved images comparing pre- and post-treatment maps and critically examined these experimental results with our previous electrophysiological data to shed light on the mechanisms of action of AF protein on GABAA receptor subpopulations, specifically the ''fast'' receptors of αn β2/3 γ2 composition that contain either the α1 or the α6 subunit.The results indicate that the α6 subunit is redistributed, with a decrease in neurites and an increase in soma. Conversely, the α1 subunit shows opposite results, with an increase in neurites and a decrease in soma.

Besides its role in the circadian rhythm, the pineal gland hormone melatonin (MLT) also possesses antiepileptogenic, antineoplastic, and cardioprotective properties, among others. The dosages necessary to elicit beneficial effects in these diseases often far surpass physiological concentrations. Although even high doses of MLT are considered to be largely harmless to humans, the possible side effects of pharmacological concentrations are so far not well investigated. In the present study, we report that pharmacological doses of MLT (3 mM) strongly altered the electrophysiological characteristics of cultured primary mouse cerebellar granule cells (CGCs). Using whole‐cell patch clamp and ratiometric Ca2+ imaging, we observed that pharmacological concentrations of MLT inhibited several types of voltage‐gated Na+, K+, and Ca2+ channels in CGCs independently of known MLT‐receptors, altering the character and pattern of elicited action potentials (APs) significantly, quickly and reversibly. Specifically, MLT reduced AP frequency, afterhyperpolarization, and rheobase, whereas AP amplitude and threshold potential remained unchanged. The altered biophysical profile of the cells could constitute a possible mechanism underlying the proposed beneficial effects of MLT in brain‐related disorders, such as epilepsy. On the other hand, it suggests potential adverse effects of pharmacological MLT concentrations on neurons, which should be considered when using MLT as a pharmacological compound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Low-intensity ultrasound is a noninvasive neuromodulation technique with the potential to focally manipulate deep brain activity at millimeter-scale resolution. However, there have been controversies over the direct influence of ultrasound on neurons, due to an indirect auditory activation. Besides, the capacity of ultrasound to stimulate the cerebellum remains underestimated. Objective: To validate the direct neuromodulation effects of ultrasound on the cerebellar cortex from both cellular and behavioral levels. Methods: Two-photon calcium imaging were used to measure the neuronal responses of cerebellar granule cells (GrCs) and Purkinje cells (PCs) to ultrasound application in awake mice. And a mouse model of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD), in which direct activation of the cerebellar cortex leads to dyskinetic movements, was used to assess the ultrasound-induced behavioral responses. Results: Low-intensity ultrasound stimulus (0.1 W/cm2) evoked rapidly increased and sustained neural activity in GrCs and PCs at targeted region, while no significant changes in calcium signals were observed responding to off-target stimulus. The efficacy of ultrasonic neuromodulation relies on acoustic dose modified by ultrasonic duration and intensity. In addition, transcranial ultrasound reliably triggered dyskinesia attacks in proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (Prrt2) mutant mice, suggesting that the intact cerebellar cortex were activated by ultrasound. Conclusion: Low-intensity ultrasound directly activates the cerebellar cortex in a dose-dependent manner, and thus serves as a promising tool for cerebellar manipulation.

Previous studies have shown the essential roles of O-GlcNAc transferase (Ogt) and O-GlcNAcylation in neuronal development, function and neurologic diseases. However, the function of Ogt and O-GlcNAcylation in the adult cerebellum has not been well elucidated. Here, we have found that cerebellum has the highest level of O-GlcNAcylation relative to cortex and hippo)campus of adult male mice. Specific deletion of Ogt in granule neuron precursors (GNPs) induces abnormal morphology and decreased size of the cerebellum in adult male Ogt deficient [conditional knock-out (cKO)] mice. Adult male cKO mice show the reduced density and aberrant distribution of cerebellar granule cells (CGCs), the disrupted arrangement of Bergman glia (BG) and Purkinje cells. In addition, adult male cKO mice exhibit aberrant synaptic connection, impaired motor coordina)tion, and learning and memory abilities. Mechanistically, we have identified G-protein subunit a12 (Ga12) is modified by Ogt-mediated O-GlcNAcylation. O-GlcNAcylation of Ga12 facilitates its binding to Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 12 (Arhgef12) and consequently activates RhoA/ROCK signaling. RhoA/ROCK pathway activator LPA can rescue the developmen)tal deficits of Ogt deficient CGCs. Therefore, our study has revealed the critical function and related mechanisms of Ogt and O-GlcNAcylation in the cerebellum of adult male mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, survival rates for extremely low gestational age neonates (ELGANs; <28 weeks gestation) has markedly improved. Unfortunately, a significant proportion of ELGANs will suffer from neurodevelopmental dysfunction. Cerebellar hemorrhagic injury (CHI) has been increasingly recognized in the ELGANs population and may contribute to neurologic dysfunction; however, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. To address this gap in knowledge, we developed a novel model of early isolated posterior fossa subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) in neonatal mice and investigated both acute and long-term-effects. Following SAH on postnatal day 6 (P6), we found significant decreased levels of proliferation with the external granular layer (EGL), thinning of the EGL, decreased Purkinje cell (PC) density, and increased Bergmann glial (BG) fiber crossings at P8. At P42, CHI resulted in decreased PC density, decreased molecular layer interneuron (MLI) density, and increased BG fiber crossings. Results from both Rotarod and inverted screen assays did not demonstrate significant effects on motor strength or learning at P35-38. Treatment with the anti-inflammatory drug Ketoprofen did not significantly alter our findings after CHI, suggesting that treatment of neuro-inflammation does not provide significant neuroprotection post CHI. Further studies are required to fully elucidate the mechanisms through which CHI disrupts cerebellar developmental programming in order to develop therapeutic strategies for neuroprotection in ELGANs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-intensity ultrasound is a noninvasive neuromodulation technique with the potential to focally manipulate deep brain activity at millimeter-scale resolution. However, there have been controversies over the direct influence of ultrasound on neurons, due to an indirect auditory activation. Besides, the capacity of ultrasound to stimulate the cerebellum remains underestimated. To validate the direct neuromodulation effects of ultrasound on the cerebellar cortex from both cellular and behavioral levels. Two-photon calcium imaging were used to measure the neuronal responses of cerebellar granule cells (GrCs) and Purkinje cells (PCs) to ultrasound application in awake mice. And a mouse model of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD), in which direct activation of the cerebellar cortex leads to dyskinetic movements, was used to assess the ultrasound-induced behavioral responses. Low-intensity ultrasound stimulus (0.1 W/cm2) evoked rapidly increased and sustained neural activity in GrCs and PCs at targeted region, while no significant changes in calcium signals were observed responding to off-target stimulus. The efficacy of ultrasonic neuromodulation relies on acoustic dose modified by ultrasonic duration and intensity. In addition, transcranial ultrasound reliably triggered dyskinesia attacks in proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (Prrt2) mutant mice, suggesting that the intact cerebellar cortex were activated by ultrasound. Low-intensity ultrasound directly activates the cerebellar cortex in a dose-dependent manner, and thus serves as a promising tool for cerebellar manipulation. • Low-intensity ultrasound evokes calcium responses in cerebellar cortical neurons directly. • Ultrasonic stimulus induced sustained effects on cerebellar granule cells and Purkinje cells. • Transcranial ultrasound elicited dyskinesia in an animal model of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD). • The efficacy of ultrasound neuromodulation is acoustic dose-dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microcephaly with pontine and cerebellar hypoplasia (MICPCH) syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the deficiency of the X-chromosomal gene CASK. However, the molecular mechanisms by which CASK deficiency causes cerebellar hypoplasia in this syndrome remain elusive. In this study, we used CASK knockout (KO) mice as models for MICPCH syndrome and investigated the effect of CASK mutants. Female CASK heterozygote KO mice replicate the progressive cerebellar hypoplasia observed in MICPCH syndrome. CASK KO cultured cerebellar granule (CG) cells show progressive cell death that can be rescued by co-infection with lentivirus expressing wild-type CASK. Rescue experiments with CASK deletion mutants identify that the CaMK, PDZ, and SH3, but not L27 and guanylate kinase domains of CASK are required for the survival of CG cells. We identify missense mutations in the CaMK domain of CASK derived from human patients that fail to rescue the cell death of cultured CASK KO CG cells. Machine learning-based structural analysis using AlphaFold 2.2 predicts that these mutations disrupt the structure of the binding interface with Liprin-α2. These results suggest that the interaction with Liprin-α2 via the CaMK domain of CASK may be involved in the pathophysiology of cerebellar hypoplasia in MICPCH syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, survival rates for extremely low gestational age neonates (ELGANs;

Introduction: Tramadol abuse is increasing among male and female teenagers with a history of substance abuse and anxiety. Many adolescent addicts take tramadol as substitute for other narcotics. Tramadol uptake is associated with many side effects. Thyme has been presumed to have a neuroprotective effect against brain damage. Aim of the work: To assess the harmful effects of tramadol on the pre and postnatal development of the rat cerebellar granule cells and to evaluate the possible ameliorative effect of thyme if being administered with tramadol simultaneously. Material & Methods: Three sets of forty-eight mature female albino rats were randomly organized into three equal groups; control (G1), tramadol treated (G2) and tramadol+thyme treated (G3). After pregnancy, the pregnant rats of each group were categorized into a group designed to be sacrificed at the gestational ages 13th, 16th and 19th for the prenatal study. In the other pregnant rat group, their offspring were further subdivided according to their ages into 3 subgroups (newborn, 10th and 20th postnatal day) for postnatal evaluation. G1 was not given any treatment. Tramadol HCL (40 mg/Kg/day) dissolved in tab water was given orally to G2. Tramadol (40 mg/Kg/day) and thyme extract (500 mg/kg/day) were given orally to G3. A light, electron microscopic examination and morphometric analysis were performed in the study. Results: By light and electron microscopic examination, there were degenerative and apoptotic changes in the cerebellar cortex of G2. G3 showed improvement in histological changes. Morphometric results showed a decrease in the cerebellar cortex thickness between the G1 and G2 which was significant and an increase in the cerebellar cortex thickness G3 when compared with that of G2. Conclusion: The study assigns that tramadol administration induces adverse effects on the prenatal and postnatal development of the rat cerebellar cortex. It also highlights an improving role of thyme in tramadol-induced cerebellar cortex injury of the pre and postnatal development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The antisecretory factor (AF) is an endogenous protein that counteracts intestinal hypersecretion and various inflammation conditions in vivo. It has been detected in many mammalian tissues and plasma, but its mechanisms of action are largely unknown. To study the pharmacological action of the AF on different GABAA receptor populations in cerebellar granule cells, we took advantage of the two‐photon uncaging method as this technique allows to stimulate the cell locally in well‐identified plasma membrane parts. We compared the electrophysiological response evoked by releasing a caged GABA compound on the soma, the axon initial segment and neurites before and after administering AF‐16, a 16 amino acids long peptide obtained from the amino‐terminal end of the AF protein. After the treatment with AF‐16, we observed peak current increases of varying magnitude depending on the neuronal region. Thus, studying the effects of furosemide and AF‐16 on the electrophysiological behaviour of cerebellar granules, we suggest that GABAA receptors, containing the α6 subunit, may be specifically involved in the increase of the peak current by AF, and different receptor subtype distribution may be responsible for differences in this increase on the cell. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Cerebellar granule cells (GCs) relay mossy fiber (MF) inputs to Purkinje cell dendrites via their axons, the parallel fibers (PFs), which are individually located at a given sublayer of the molecular layer (ML). Although a certain degree of heterogeneity among GCs has been recently reported, variability of GC responses to MF inputs has never been associated with their most notable structural variability, location of their projecting PFs in the ML. Here, we utilize an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated labeling technique that enables us to categorize GCs according to the location of their PFs, and compare the Ca2+ responses to MF stimulations between three groups of GCs, consisting of either GCs having PFs at the deep (D-GCs), middle (M-GCs), or superficial (S-GCs) sublayer. Our structural analysis revealed that there was no correlation between position of GC soma in the GC layer and location of its PF in the ML, confirming that our AAV-mediated labeling was important to test the projection-dependent variability of the Ca2+ responses in GCs. We then found that the Ca2+ responses of D-GCs differed from those of M-GCs. Pharmacological experiments implied that the different Ca2+ responses were mainly attributable to varied distributions of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) at the synaptic and extrasynaptic regions of GC dendrites. In addition to GABAAR distributions, amounts of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors appear to be also varied, because Ca2+ responses were different between D-GCs and M-GCs when glutamate spillover was enhanced. Whereas the Ca2+ responses of S-GCs were mostly equivalent to those of D-GCs and M-GCs, the blockade of GABA uptake resulted in larger Ca2+ responses in S-GCs compared with D-GCs and M-GCs, implying existence of mechanisms leading to more excitability in S-GCs with increased GABA release. Thus, this study reveals MF stimulation-mediated non-uniform Ca2+ responses in the cerebellar GCs associated with the location of their PFs in the ML, and raises a possibility that combination of inherent functional variability of GCs and their specific axonal projection contributes to the information processing through the GCs.

The discovery by Altman and coworkers of adult-born microneurons in the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus has triggered a long stream of studies and many attempts to harness adult neurogenesis, promote regeneration after injury, and contrast cognitive decline in the elderly. Likewise, the discovery of postnatal neurogenesis in the cerebellum has provided the framework for many subsequent molecular studies, including investigations of developmental processes and the assessment of GC progenitor (GCP) clonal expansion in the context of human disease. Here, I will briefly discuss some of the discoveries made in the field of cerebellar development over the years building upon the findings of Altman and his colleagues, touching upon signaling pathways that regulate granule cell neurogenesis and their involvement in developmental and neoplastic disorders of the cerebellum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is a unique Ca2+ entry pathway that is specifically activated by the depletion of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This process is ubiquitous in non-excitable cells; in contrast, the role of SOCE in neurons is still poorly understood because of the complexity of Ca2+ influx mechanisms existing in these cells. However, growing evidence indicates that SOCE plays an important role in the maintenance of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, neuronal signaling, and plasticity, and this emphasizes the necessity to include SOCE in mathematical models of the calcium dynamics. Here we extend our previously published models of the calcium dynamics by incorporating the data on Ca2+-induced calcium release and SOCE based on the experimental results obtained mostly on cerebellar slices. Our simulations have shown that SOCE in neurons is probably necessary to maintain the calcium levels in the cytosol and ER and may influence repetitive Ca2+ signals in the case of significant store depletion. Modeling of SOCE, however, remains problematic because of the difficulty of experimental isolation of this process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brain development is regulated by conserved transcriptional programs across species, but little is known about the divergent mechanisms that create species-specific characteristics. Among brain regions, human cerebellar histogenesis differs in complexity compared with nonhuman primates and rodents, making it important to develop methods to generate human cerebellar neurons that closely resemble those in the developing human cerebellum. We report a rapid protocol for the derivation of the human ATOH1 lineage, the precursor of excitatory cerebellar neurons, from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Upon transplantation into juvenile mice, hPSC-derived cerebellar granule cells migrated along glial fibers and integrated into the cerebellar cortex. By Translational Ribosome Affinity Purification-seq, we identified an unexpected temporal shift in the expression of RBFOX3 (NeuN) and NEUROD1, which are classically associated with differentiated neurons, in the human outer external granule layer. This molecular divergence may enable the protracted development of the human cerebellum compared to mice.

• Regular structures of cerebellar neural networks are formed through dynamic processes during postnatal development. • This review summarizes developmental processes in the cerebellum regulated by extracellular signaling. • Many processes indeed rely on extracellular signaling via synaptic transmission or secreted/cell adhesion molecules. • Extracellular signaling may spatiotemporally coordinate different processes to form organized cerebellar networks. The cerebellum forms regular neural network structures consisting of a few major types of neurons, such as Purkinje cells, granule cells, and molecular layer interneurons, and receives two major inputs from climbing fibers and mossy fibers. Its regular structures consist of three well-defined layers, with each type of neuron designated to a specific location and forming specific synaptic connections. During the first few weeks of postnatal development in rodents, the cerebellum goes through dynamic changes via proliferation, migration, differentiation, synaptogenesis, and maturation, to create such a network structure. The development of this organized network structure presumably relies on the communication between developing elements in the network, including not only individual neurons, but also their dendrites, axons, and synapses. Therefore, it is reasonable that extracellular signaling via synaptic transmission, secreted molecules, and cell adhesion molecules, plays important roles in cerebellar network development. Although it is not yet clear as to how overall cerebellar development is orchestrated, there is indeed accumulating lines of evidence that extracellular signaling acts toward the development of individual elements in the cerebellar networks. In this article, we introduce what we have learned from many studies regarding the extracellular signaling required for cerebellar network development, including our recent study suggesting the importance of unbiased synaptic inputs from parallel fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebellar granule cells (GCs) relay mossy fiber (MF) inputs to Purkinje cell dendrites via their axons, the parallel fibers (PFs), which are individually located at a given sublayer of the molecular layer (ML). Although a certain degree of heterogeneity among GCs has been recently reported, variability of GC responses to MF inputs has never been associated with their most notable structural variability, location of their projecting PFs in the ML. Here, we utilize an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated labeling technique that enables us to categorize GCs according to the location of their PFs, and compare the Ca2+ responses to MF stimulations between three groups of GCs, consisting of either GCs having PFs at the deep (D-GCs), middle (M-GCs), or superficial (S-GCs) sublayer. Our structural analysis revealed that there was no correlation between position of GC soma in the GC layer and location of its PF in the ML, confirming that our AAV-mediated labeling was important to test the projection-dependent variability of the Ca2+ responses in GCs. We then found that the Ca2+ responses of D-GCs differed from those of M-GCs. Pharmacological experiments implied that the different Ca2+ responses were mainly attributable to varied distributions of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) at the synaptic and extrasynaptic regions of GC dendrites. In addition to GABAAR distributions, amounts of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors appear to be also varied, because Ca2+ responses were different between D-GCs and M-GCs when glutamate spillover was enhanced. Whereas the Ca2+ responses of S-GCs were mostly equivalent to those of D-GCs and M-GCs, the blockade of GABA uptake resulted in larger Ca2+ responses in S-GCs compared with D-GCs and M-GCs, implying existence of mechanisms leading to more excitability in S-GCs with increased GABA release. Thus, this study reveals MF stimulation-mediated non-uniform Ca2+ responses in the cerebellar GCs associated with the location of their PFs in the ML, and raises a possibility that combination of inherent functional variability of GCs and their specific axonal projection contributes to the information processing through the GCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AMPARs control fast synaptic communication between neurons and their function relies on auxiliary subunits, which importantly modulate channel properties. Although it has been suggested that AMPARs can bind to TARPs with variable stoichiometry, little is known about the effect that this stoichiometry exerts on certain AMPAR properties. Here we have found that AMPARs show a clear stoichiometry-dependent modulation by the prototypical TARP γ2 although the receptor still needs to be fully saturated with γ2 to show some typical TARP-induced characteristics (i.e. an increase in channel conductance). We also uncovered important differences in the stoichiometric modulation between calcium-permeable and calcium-impermeable AMPARs. Moreover, in heteromeric AMPARs, γ2 positioning in the complex is important to exert certain TARP-dependent features. Finally, by comparing data from recombinant receptors with endogenous AMPAR currents from mouse cerebellar granule cells, we have determined a likely presence of two γ2 molecules at somatic receptors in this cell type.

Alcohol, a widely abused drug, has deleterious effects on the immature nervous system. This study investigates the effect of chronic in vitro ethanol exposure on the metabolism of immature rat cerebellar granular cells (CGCs) and on their response to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Primary CGC cultures were exposed to ethanol (100 mM in culture medium) or to control ethanol-free medium starting day one in vitro (DIV1). At DIV8, the expression of ATP synthase gene ATP5g3 was quantified using real-time PCR, then cultures were exposed to 3 hours of OGD or normoxic conditions. Subsequently, cellular metabolism was assessed by a resazurin assay and by ATP level measurement. ATP5g3 expression was reduced by 12-fold (P = 0.03) and resazurin metabolism and ATP level were decreased to 74.4 ± 4.6% and 55.5 ± 6.9%, respectively after chronic ethanol treatment compared to control values (P < 0.01). Additionally, after OGD exposure of ethanol-treated cultures, resazurin metabolism and ATP level were decreased to 12.7 ± 1.0% and 9.0 ± 2.0% from control values (P < 0.01). These results suggest that chronic ethanol exposure reduces the cellular ATP level, possibly through a gene expression down-regulation mechanism, and increases the vulnerability to oxygen-glucose deprivation. Thus, interventions which improve metabolic function and sustain ATP-levels could attenuate ethanol-induced neuronal dysfunction and should be addressed in future studies.

Key points: A T258F mutation of the glycine receptor increases the receptor affinity to endogenous agonists, modifies single‐channel conductance and shapes response decay kinetics.Glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells play their functional role not continuously, but when the granule cell layer starts receiving a high amount of excitatory inputs.Despite their relative scarcity, tonically active glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells make a significant impact on action potential generation and inter‐neuronal crosstalk, and modulate synaptic plasticity in neural networks; extracellular glycine increases probability of postsynaptic response occurrence acting at NMDA receptors and decreases this probability acting at glycine receptors.Tonic conductance through glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells is a yet undiscovered element of the biphasic mechanism that regulates processing of sensory inputs in the cerebellum.A T258F point mutation disrupts this biphasic mechanism, thus illustrating the possible role of the gain‐of‐function mutations of the glycine receptor in development of neural pathologies. Functional glycine receptors (GlyRs) have been repeatedly detected in cerebellar granule cells (CGCs), where they deliver exclusively tonic inhibitory signals. The functional role of this signalling, however, remains unclear. Apart from that, there is accumulating evidence of the important role of GlyRs in cerebellar structures in development of neural pathologies such as hyperekplexia, which can be triggered by GlyR gain‐of‐function mutations. In this research we initially tested functional properties of GlyRs, carrying the yet understudied T258F gain‐of‐function mutation, and found that this mutation makes significant modifications in GlyR response to endogenous agonists. Next, we clarified the role of tonic GlyR conductance in neuronal signalling generated by single CGCs and by neural networks in cell cultures and in living cerebellar tissue of C57Bl‐6J mice. We found that GlyRs of CGCs deliver a significant amount of tonic inhibition not continuously, but when the cerebellar granule layer starts receiving substantial excitatory input. Under these conditions tonically active GlyRs become a part of neural signalling machinery allowing generation of action potential (AP) bursts of limited length in response to sensory‐evoked signals. GlyRs of CGCs support a biphasic modulatory mechanism which enhances AP firing when excitatory input intensity is low, but suppresses it when excitatory input rises to a certain critical level. This enables one of the key functions of the CGC layer: formation of sensory representations and their translation into motor output. Finally, we have demonstrated that the T258F mutation in CGC GlyRs modifies single‐cell and neural network signalling, and breaks a biphasic modulation of the AP‐generating machinery. Key points: A T258F mutation of the glycine receptor increases the receptor affinity to endogenous agonists, modifies single‐channel conductance and shapes response decay kinetics.Glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells play their functional role not continuously, but when the granule cell layer starts receiving a high amount of excitatory inputs.Despite their relative scarcity, tonically active glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells make a significant impact on action potential generation and inter‐neuronal crosstalk, and modulate synaptic plasticity in neural networks; extracellular glycine increases probability of postsynaptic response occurrence acting at NMDA receptors and decreases this probability acting at glycine receptors.Tonic conductance through glycine receptors of cerebellar granule cells is a yet undiscovered element of the biphasic mechanism that regulates processing of sensory inputs in the cerebellum.A T258F point mutation disrupts this biphasic mechanism, thus illustrating the possible role of the gain‐of‐function mutations of the glycine receptor in development of neural pathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A glutamate model of stroke was analyzed from the standpoint of the development of a typical pathological process that is thought to occur when major regulatory mechanisms are violated. The analysis made it possible to isolate the main mechanisms that underlie a transition from normal physiological processes to common pathological changes. This review considers a generalizing concept of how the pathological process develops. Following the concept, the typical pathological process is based on nonspecific distortion of cyclic regulatory processes and arises when reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase simultaneously. Once RNS and ROS concentrations are beyond the regulatory capabilities of biochemical antioxidant systems, nitric oxide and superoxide anion radical cycles are disrupted. In the context of the concept, damage to cell membranes and subcellular structures in glutamate toxicity arises because the above alterations lead to the generation of nitrogen dioxide, which is a highly reactive compound, is involved in free radical chain reactions, and oxidizes the main biochemical components of living organisms: DNA/RNA (guanines primarily), fatty acids (unsaturated fatty acids that are components of phospholipid membranes), and proteins (the SH groups of sulfur-containing amino acids and the OH groups of tyrosine residues to produce nitrotyrosine). The concept agrees well with the ideas that every disease starts with a failure of regulatory mechanisms (R. Virkhov) and that dysregulatory pathology forms its basis (G.N. Kryzhanovsky). The mechanisms of the toxic effects of glutamate- and NO-generating compounds as a model of stroke made it possible to suggest methods to reduce their damaging effects. The methods have already been used as part of therapy for ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, hemorrhages, and head injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides have protective effects against apoptosis in neurons exposed to ischemia/reperfusion injury, but the mechanisms are unclear. The goal of this study was to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the effects of ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides against oxidative stress-induced neuronal apoptosis. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was used to induce apoptosis in cultured cerebellar granule cells. In these cells, ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides remarkably suppressed H2O2-induced apoptosis, decreased expression of caspase-3, Bax and Bim and increased that of Bcl-2. These findings suggested that ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides regulate expression of apoptosis-associated proteins, inhibit oxidative stress-induced neuronal apoptosis and, therefore, have significant neuroprotective effects.

α6-containing GABA A receptors (α6GABA A Rs) are strongly expressed in cerebellar granule cells, where they mediate a correctly timed and precise coordination of all muscle groups that execute behavior and protect the brain from information overflow. Recently, it was demonstrated that positive modulators with a high selectivity for α6GABA A Rs (α6-modulators) can reduce the symptoms of multiple neuropsychiatric disorders in respective animal models to an extent comparable with established clinical therapeutics. Here, these incredible findings are discussed and explained. So far, the beneficial actions of α6-modulators and their lack of side effects have only been demonstrated in animal models of the respective disorders. Preclinical studies have demonstrated their suitability for further drug development. Future human studies have to investigate their safety and possible side effects, and to clarify to which extent individual symptoms of the respective disorders can be reduced by α6-modulators in patients during acute and chronic dosing. Due to their broad therapeutic potential, α6-modulators might become a valuable new treatment option for multiple neuropsychiatric disorders., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest The author is one of the inventors from four different Universities who discovered the action of alpha6-selective allosteric modulators mentioned in this article. Together, the four Universities filed the U.S. Patent 10,865,203; U.S.Patent 11,427,582; and the European Patent 3325479, entitled: “Ligands selective to alpha6 subunit-containing GABAA receptors and their methods of use”. The patent rights are co-owned by the inventor´s institutions. The author has been retired for several years and has no relationship with any pharmaceutical company and no other competing interests.

Aims: PGE2 is one of the most abundant prostanoids in mammalian tissues, but its effect on neuronal receptors has not been well investigated. This study examines the effect of PGE2 on GABAA receptor currents in rat cerebellar granule neurons. Methods: GABAA currents were recorded using a patch-clamp technique. Cell surface and total protein of GABAA β1/2/3 subunits was carried out by Western blot analysis. Results: Upon incubation of neurons with PGE2 (1 µM) for 60 minutes, GABAA currents were significantly potentiated. This PGE2-driven effect could be blocked by PKC or CaMKII inhibitors as well as EP1 receptor antagonist, and mimicked by PMA or EP1 receptor agonist. Furthermore, Western blot data showed that PGE2 did not increase the total expression level of GABAA receptors, but significantly increased surface levels of GABAA β1/2/3 subunits after 1 h of treatment. Consistently, both PKC and CaMKII inhibitors were able to reduce PGE2-induced increases in cell surface expression of GABAA receptors. Conclusion: Activation of either the PKC or CaMKII pathways by EP1 receptors mediates the PGE2-induced increase in GABAA currents. This suggests that upregulation of postsynaptic GABAA receptors by PGE2 may have profound effects on cerebellar functioning under physiological and pathological conditions.

A recently reported rapid potentiation of NMDA receptors by Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRls) via a Homer protein link is distinct from the classical, relatively slow inhibitory G-protein-associated signaling triggered by mGluRl activation. The relationship between these two mechanisms remains unknown. Here, we focused on the mGluRI-dependent modulation of NMDAR response in hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells of C57BL6-J mice and found that these two contrasting mechanisms overlap competitively on the time scale from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with the net effect depending on the cell type. At a shorter time interval (units of millisecond), the Homer-mediated signal from mGluRls prevails, causing upregulation of NMDAR function, in both dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells. Our results shed light on the possible mechanisms of anti-schizophrenia drugs that disrupt Homer-containing protein link. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of ionic homeostasis in cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (II), CDDP)-induced neurotoxicity. CDDP is a severely neurotoxic antineoplastic agent that causes neuronal excitotoxicity. According to some studies, calcium influx increases, whereas potassium efflux decreases neuronal death. Nimodipine and glibenclamide were used to analyze the role of ionic flows in CDDP-induced neurotoxicity in rat primary cerebellar granule cell (CGC) culture. Materials and Methods: CGC culture was prepared from the cerebella of Sprague Dawley 5-day-old pups. The submaximal concentration of CDDP was determined and then given with 1, 10, or 50 µM of drugs into culture. Neurotoxicity was investigated using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, a tetrazole) assay. One-way analysis of variance, Kruskal-Wallis H test, and Tukey test were applied for statistical analysis. Results: CDDP induced neurotoxicity in a concentration-dependent manner. Neither nimodipine nor glibenclamide was able to protect CGCs against CDDP neurotoxicity. Conclusion: By blocking L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, nimodipine did not prevent CDDP neurotoxicity in CGCs. Ca2+ influx via these channels seemed to be insufficient to cause a change in CDDP-induced neurotoxicity. Similarly, glibenclamide failed to prevent CDDP neurotoxicity. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms of these preliminary results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Exposure to ozone level and ultraviolet (UV) radiation is one of the major concerns in the context of public health. Numerous studies confirmed that abundant free radicals initiate undesired processes, e.g. carcinogenesis, cells degeneration, etc. Therefore, the design of redox-active molecules with novel structures, containing radical quenchers molecules with novel structures, and understanding their chemistry and biology, might be one of the prospective solutions. Methods: We designed a group of peptide dendrimers carrying multiple copies of p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and evaluated their molecular antioxidant properties in 1,1’-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) tests. Cytotoxicity against human melanoma and fibroblast cells as well as against primary cerebral granule cells (CGC) alone and challenged by neurotoxic sodium glutamate and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in presence of dendrimers were measured. Results: PABA-terminated dendrimers express enhanced radical and radical cation scavenging properties in relation to PABA alone. In cellular tests, the dendrimers at 100 M fully suppress and between 20–100 M reduce proliferation of the human melanoma cell line. In concentration 20 M dendrimers generate small amount of the reactive oxygen species (

The antisecretory factor is an endogenous protein found in all mammalian tissues investigated so far. It acts by counteracting intestinal hypersecretion and various forms of inflammation, but the detailed mechanism of antisecretory factor (AF) action is unknown. We tested neuronal GABAA receptors by means of AF-16, a potent AF peptide derived from amino acids 36-51 from the NH2 part of AF. Cultured rat cerebellar granule cells were used, and the effects on the GABA-mediated chloride currents were determined by whole-cell patch clamp. Both the neurotransmitter GABA and AF-16 were added by perfusion of the experimental system. A 3-min AF-16 preincubation was more efficacious than 30 s in significantly elevating the rapidly desensitizing GABA-activated chloride current. No effect was found on the tonic, slowly desensitizing current. The GABA-activated current increase by AF-16 demonstrated a low k of 41 pM with a maximal increase of 37% persisting for some minutes after AF washout, independent from GABA concentration. This indicates an effect on the maximal stimulation (E%Max) excluding an altered affinity between GABA and its receptor. An immunocytochemical fluorescence approach with anti ² subunit antibodies demonstrated an increased expression of GABAA receptors. Thus, both the electrophysiological and the immunofluorescence approach indicate an increased appearance of GABAA receptors on the neuronal membrane. The rationale of the experiments was to test the effect of AF on a defined neuronal population of GABAA receptors. The implications of the results on the impact of AF on the enteric nervous system or on brain function are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lanthionine ketimine ethyl ester (LKE) is a synthetic derivative of the naturally occurring amino acid lanthionine ketimine. We previously showed that LKE reduced clinical signs in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis (MS) associated with reductions in axonal damage; however, whether LKE has direct beneficial actions on mammalian neuronal cells was not examined. In the current study, we tested the effects of LKE in SH-SY5Y human neuronal cells and in primary mouse cerebellar granule neurons. In both cell types, LKE dose-dependently reduced the cell death that occurred spontaneously followed a change in media. LKE also reduced cell death due to glutamate excitoxicity, accompanied by a reduction in production of reactive oxygen species. LKE induced neuritogenesis in both undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells and in primary neuron, increasing process numbers and lengths. These results demonstrate that direct neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects of LKE likely contribute to its beneficial actions in vivo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The toxicity of long chained perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) has previously been reported to be related to the length of the perfluorinated carbon chain and functional group attached. In the present study, we compared the cytotoxicity of six PFAAs, using primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs). Two perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs, chain length C 6 and C 8 ) and four perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs, chain length C 8 –C 11 ) were studied. These PFAAs have been detected in human blood and the brain tissue of mammals. The cell viability trypan blue and MTT assays were used to determine toxicity potencies (based on LC 50 values) after 24 h exposure (in descending order): perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) ≥ perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) > perfluorooctanesulfonic acid potassium salt (PFOS) > perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) > perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) > perfluorohexanesulfonic acid potassium salt (PFHxS). Concentrations of the six PFAAs that produced equipotent effects after 24 h exposure were used to further explore the dynamics of viability changes during this period. Therefore viability was assessed at 10, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 min as well as 6, 12, 18 and 24 h. A difference in the onset of reduction in viability was observed, occurring relatively quickly (30–60 min) for PFOS, PFDA and PFUnDA, and much slower (12–24 h) for PFHxS, PFOA and PFNA. A slight protective effect of vitamin E against PFOA, PFNA and PFOS-induced reduction in viability indicated a possible involvement of oxidative stress. PFOA and PFOS did not induce lipid peroxidation on their own, but significantly accelerated cumene hydroperoxide-induced lipid peroxidation. When distribution of the six PFAAs in the CGN-membrane was investigated using NanoSIMS50 imaging, two distinct patterns appeared. Whereas PFHxS, PFOS and PFUnDA aggregated in large hotspots, PFOA, PFNA and PFDA showed a more dispersed distribution pattern. In conclusion, the toxicity of the investigated PFAAs increased with increasing carbon chain length. For molecules with a similar chain length, a sulfonate functional group led to greater toxicity than a carboxyl group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)/cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK) signaling pathway regulates the clustering and the recruitment of proteins and vesicles to the synapse, thereby adjusting the exoendocytic cycle to the intensity of activity. Accordingly, this pathway can accelerate endocytosis following large-scale exocytosis, and pre-synaptic cGK type II (cGKII) plays a major role in this process, controlling the homeostatic balance of vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis. We have studied synaptic vesicle recycling in cerebellar granule cells from mice lacking cGKII under strong and sustained stimulation, combining imaging techniques and ultrastructural analyses. The ultrastructure of synapses in the adult mouse cerebellar cortex was also examined in these animals. The lack of cGKII provokes structural changes to synapses in cultured cells and in the cerebellar cortex. Moreover, endocytosis is slowed down in a subset of boutons in these cells when they are stimulated strongly. In addition, from the results obtained with the selective inhibitor of cGKs, KT5823, it can be concluded that cGKI also regulates some aspects of vesicle cycling. Overall, these results confirm the importance of the cGMP pathway in the regulation of vesicle cycling following strong stimulation of cerebellar granule cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The neurodegeneration of cerebellar granule cells, after low potassium induced apoptosis, is known to be temporally divided into an early and a late phase. Voltage-dependent anion channel-1 (VDAC1) protein, changing from the closed inactive state to the active open state, is central to the switch between the early and late phase. It is also known that: (i) VDAC1 can undergo phosphorylation events and (ii) AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), the sensor of cellular stress, may have a role in neuronal homeostasis. In the view of this, the involvement of AMPK activation and its correlation with VDAC1 status and activity has been investigated in the course of cerebellar granule cells apoptosis. The results reported in this study show that an increased level of the phosphorylated, active, isoform of AMPK occurs in the early phase, peaks at 3 h and guarantees an increase in the phosphorylation status of VDCA1, resulting in a reduced activity of this latter. However this situation is transient in nature, since, in the late phase, AMPK activation decreases as well as the level of phosphorylated VDAC1. In a less phosphorylated status, VDAC1 fully recovers its gating activity and drives cells along the death route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cannabinoid receptors mediate short-term retrograde inhibition of neurotransmitter release, as well as long-term depression of synaptic transmission at excitatory synapses. The responses of individual nerve terminals in VGLUT1- pHluorin transfected cerebellar granule cells to cannabinoids have shown that prolonged activation of cannabinoid type 1 receptors ( CB1Rs) silences a subpopulation of previously active synaptic boutons. Adopting a combined pharmacological and genetic approach to study the molecular mechanisms of CB1R-induced silencing, we found that adenylyl cyclase inhibition decreases cAMP levels while it increases the number of silent synaptic boutons and occludes the induction of further silencing by the cannabinoid agonist HU-210. Guanine nucleotide exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (Epac proteins) mediate some of the presynaptic effects of cAMP in the potentiation of synaptic transmission. ESI05, a selective Epac2 inhibitor, and U-73122, the specific inhibitor of phospholipase C ( PLC), both augment the number of silent synaptic boutons. Moreover, they abolish the capacity of the Epac activator, 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-2′- O-methyladenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate monosodium hydrate, to prevent HU-210-induced silencing consistent with PLC signaling lying downstream of Epac2 proteins. Furthermore, Rab3-interacting molecule ( RIM)1α KO cells have many more basally silent synaptic boutons (12.9 ± 3.5%) than wild-type cells (1.1 ± 0.5%). HU-210 induced further silencing in these mutant cells, although 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-2′- O-methyladenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate monosodium hydrate only awoke the HU-210-induced silence and not the basally silent synaptic boutons. This behavior can be rescued by expressing RIM1α in RIM1α KO cells, these cells behaving very much like wild-type cells. These findings support the hypothesis that a cAMP/Epac/ PLC signaling pathway targeting the release machinery appears to mediate cannabinoid-induced presynaptic silencing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute injury of central nervous system (CNS) starts a cascade of morphological, molecular, and functional changes including formation of a fibrotic scar, expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), and expression of extracellular matrix proteins leading to arrested neurite outgrowth and failed regeneration. We assessed alteration of electrophysiological properties of cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) in two in vitro models of neuronal injury: (i) model of fibrotic scar created from coculture of meningeal fibroblasts and cerebral astrocytes with addition of TGF-β1; (ii) a simplified model based on administration of TGF-β1 to CGCs culture. Both models reproduced suppression of neurite outgrowth caused by neuronal injury, which was equally restored by chondroitinase ABC (ChABC), a key disruptor of fibrotic scar formation. Voltage-dependent calcium current was not affected in either injury model. However, intracellular calcium concentration could be altered as an expression of inositol trisphosphate receptor type 1 was suppressed by TGF-β1 and restored by ChABC. Voltage-dependent sodium current was significantly suppressed in CGCs cultured on a model of fibrotic scar and was only partly restored by ChABC. Administration of TGF-β1 significantly shifted current-voltage relation of sodium current toward more positive membrane potential without change to maximal current amplitude. Both transient and sustained potassium currents were significantly suppressed on a fibrotic scar and restored by ChABC to their control amplitudes. In contrast, TGF-β1 itself significantly upregulated transient and did not change sustained potassium current. Observed changes of voltage-dependent ion currents may contribute to known morphological and functional changes in injured CNS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of the kinase ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), a well-known protein engaged in DNA damage repair, in the regulation of neuronal responses to oxidative stress remains unexplored. Thus, the neuroprotective efficacy of KU-55933, a potent inhibitor of ATM, against cell damage evoked by oxidative stress (hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 ) has been studied in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and compared with the efficacy of this agent in models of doxorubicin (Dox)- and staurosporine (St)-evoked cell death. KU-55933 inhibited the cell death induced by H 2 O 2 or Dox but not by St in undifferentiated (UN-) and retinoic acid-differentiated (RA)-SH-SY5Y cells, with a more pronounced effect in the latter cell phenotype. Furthermore, this ATM inhibitor attenuated the Dox- but not H 2 O 2 -induced caspase-3 activity in both UN- and RA-SH-SY5Y cells. Although KU-55933 inhibited the H 2 O 2 - and Dox-induced activation of ATM, it attenuated the toxin-induced phosphorylation of the proteins H2AX and p53 only in the latter model of cell damage. Moreover, the ATM inhibitor prevented the H 2 O 2 -evoked increases in calpain and cathepsin D activity and attenuated cell damage to a similar degree as inhibitors of calpain (MDL28170) and cathepsin D (pepstatin A). Finally, we confirmed the neuroprotective potential of KU-55933 against the H 2 O 2 - and Dox-evoked cell damage in primary mouse cerebellar granule cells and in the mouse hippocampal HT-22 cell line. Altogether, our results extend the neuroprotective portfolio of KU-55933 to a model of oxidative stress, with this effect not involving inhibition of the γH2AX/p-p53/caspase-3 pathway and instead associated with the attenuation of calpain and cathepsin D activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recycling of synaptic vesicle ( SV) proteins and transmitter release occur at multiple sites along the axon. These processes are sensitive to inhibition of the small GTP binding protein ARF1, which regulates the adaptor protein 1 and 3 complex ( AP-1/ AP-3). As the axon matures, SV recycling becomes restricted to the presynaptic bouton, and its machinery undergoes a complex process of maturation. We used the styryl dye FM1-43 to highlight differences in the efficiency of membrane recycling at different sites in cerebellar granule cells cultured for 7 days in vitro. We used Brefeldin A ( BFA) to inhibit AP-1/ AP-3-mediated recycling and to test the contribution of this pathway to the heterogeneity of the responses when these cells are strongly stimulated. Combining imaging techniques and ultrastructural analyses, we found a significant decrease in the density of functional boutons and an increase in the presence of endosome-like structures within the boutons of cells incubated with BFA prior to FM1-43 loading. Such effects were not observed when BFA was added 5 min after the end of the loading step, when endocytosis was almost fully completed. In this situation, vesicles were found closer to the active zone ( AZ) in boutons exposed to BFA. Together, these data suggest that the AP-1/ AP-3 pathway contributes to SV recycling, affecting different steps in all boutons but not equally, and thus being partly responsible for the heterogeneity of the different recycling efficiencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are responsible for the action potential generation in excitable cells including neurons and involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Scorpion toxins are invaluable tools to explore the structure and function of ion channels. BmK NT1, a scorpion toxin from Buthus martensii Karsch, stimulates sodium influx in cerebellar granule cells (CGCs). In this study, we characterized the mode of action of BmK NT1 on the VGSCs and explored the cellular response in CGC cultures. BmK NT1 delayed the fast inactivation of VGSCs, increased the Na currents, and shifted the steady-state activation and inactivation to more hyperpolarized membrane potential, which was similar to the mode of action of α-scorpion toxins. BmK NT1 stimulated neuron death (EC = 0.68 µM) and produced massive intracellular Ca overloading (EC = 0.98 µM). TTX abrogated these responses, suggesting that both responses were subsequent to the activation of VGSCs. The Ca response of BmK NT1 was primary through extracellular Ca influx since reducing the extracellular Ca concentration suppressed the Ca response. Further pharmacological evaluation demonstrated that BmK NT1-induced Ca influx and neurotoxicity were partially blocked either by MK-801, an NMDA receptor blocker, or by KB-R7943, an inhibitor of Na/Ca exchangers. Nifedipine, an L-type Ca channel inhibitor, slightly suppressed both Ca response and neurotoxicity. A combination of these three inhibitors abrogated both responses. Considered together, these data ambiguously demonstrated that activation of VGSCs by an α-scorpion toxin was sufficient to produce neurotoxicity which was associated with intracellular Ca overloading through both NMDA receptor- and Na/Ca exchanger-mediated Ca influx. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, we tested in a model of generalized reflex epilepsy in mice different 1,4-benzodiazepines and 1,5-benzodiazepines with agonistic activity at the GABA receptor population contributing to the peak component of the chloride current elicited by GABA in cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) in culture. The substances have all higher lipophilia than clobazam, an antiepileptic drug well known and used in human therapy. This ensures that they all can pass relatively easily the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The benzodiazepines were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) and tested for their activity against sound-induced tonic and clonic seizures in a genetic model of experimental epilepsy, the DBA/2 mouse. Our data demonstrates an interesting inverse correlation between the EDs and the efficacy (E %) of the drugs in increasing the peak chloride current elicited by GABA in cerebellar granule cells in culture. There is indication of the existence of a threshold of E % above which the increase of ED with increasing E % becomes linear. This is statistically significant for the clonic phase, whereas it is at the limit of significance for the tonic one. A possible interpretation of these results is that in this epilepsy model, projections from the cerebellum exert a convulsion prevention activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a secreted growth factor recently proposed to act as a neuromodulatory peptide in the Central Nervous System. PTN appears to be involved in neurodegenerative diseases and neural disorders, and it has also been implicated in learning and memory. Specifically, PTN-deficient mice exhibit a lower threshold for LTP induction in the hippocampus, which is attenuated in mice overexpressing PTN. However, there is little information about the signaling systems recruited by PTN to modulate neural activity. To address this issue, the gene expression profile in hippocampus of mice lacking PTN was analyzed using microarrays of 22,000 genes. In addition, we corroborated the effect of the absence of PTN on the expression of these genes by silencing this growth factor in primary neuronal cultures in vitro. The microarray analysis identified 102 genes that are differentially expressed (z-score > 3.0) in PTN null mice, and the expression of eight of those modified in the hippocampus of KO mice was also modified in vitro after silencing PTN in cultured neurons with siRNAs. The data obtained indicate that the absence of PTN affects AKT pathway response and modulates the expression of genes related with neuroprotection ( Mgst3 and Estrogen receptor 1, Ers 1 ) and cell differentiation ( Caspase 6 , Nestin , and Odz4 ), both in vivo and in vitro . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In mammals, excitatory synapses contain two major types of ionotropic glutamate receptors: α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors and N-methyl- d-aspartate receptors ( NMDARs). Both receptor types are comprised of several subunits that are post-translationally modified by N-glycosylation. However, the precise N-glycans that are attached to these receptor types are largely unknown. Here, we used biochemistry to confirm that native NMDARs are extensively N-glycosylated; moreover, we found that the NMDAR GluN2B subunit differs from GluN1 subunits with respect to endoglycosidase H sensitivity. Next, we used a complete panel of lectins to determine the glycan composition of NMDARs in both cerebellar tissue and cultured cerebellar granule cells. Our experiments identified 23 lectins that pulled down both the GluN1 and GluN2B NMDAR subunits. We then performed an electrophysiological analysis using representative lectins and found that pre-incubating cerebellar granule cells with the AAL, WGA, or ConA alters the receptor's biophysical properties; this lectin-mediated effect was eliminated when the cells were deglycosylated with peptide-N-glycosidase F. Similar lectin-mediated effects were observed using HEK293 cells that express recombinant GluN1/GluN2B receptors. Finally, using mutant recombinant GluN subunits expressed in HEK293 cells, we found that 11 out of 12 predicted N-glycosylation sites in GluN1 and 7 out of 7 N-glycosylation sites in GluN2B are occupied by N-glycans. These data provide new insight into the role that N-glycosylation plays in regulating the function of NMDA receptors in the central nervous system. All animal experiments were performed in accordance with relevant institutional ethics guidelines and regulations with respect to protecting animal welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Batten disease, a lysosomal storage disorder, is caused by mutations in the CLN3 gene. The Cln3-knockout (Cln3−/−) mouse model of the disease exhibits many characteristic pathological features of the human disorder. Here, we show that Cln3−/− mice, similarly to Batten disease patients, have a deficit in cerebellar motor coordination. To explore the possible cellular cause of this functional impairment, we compared the vulnerability of wild type (WT) and Cln3−/− cerebellar granule cell cultures to different toxic insults. We have found that cultured Cln3−/− cerebellar granule cells are selectively more vulnerable to AMPA-type glutamate receptor-mediated toxicity than their WT counterparts. This selective sensitivity was also observed in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures. Our results suggest that lack of the CLN3 protein has a significant influence on the function of AMPA receptors in cerebellar granule neurons, and that AMPA receptor dysregulation may be a major contributor to the cerebellar dysfunction in Batten disease.

The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is a widely expressed homodimeric G-protein coupled receptor structurally related to the metabotropic glutamate receptors and GPRC6A. In addition to its well characterized role in maintaining calcium homeostasis and regulating parathyroid hormone release, evidence has accumulated linking the CaSR with cellular differentiation and migration, brain development, stem cell engraftment, wound healing, and tumor growth and metastasis. Elevated expression of the CaSR in aggressive metastatic tumors has been suggested as a potential novel prognostic marker for predicting metastasis, especially to bone tissue where extracellular calcium concentrations may be sufficiently high to activate the receptor. Recent evidence supports a model whereby CaSR-mediated activation of integrins promotes cellular migration. Integrins are single transmembrane spanning heterodimeric adhesion receptors that mediate cell migration by binding to extracellular matrix proteins. The CaSR has been shown to form signaling complexes with the integrins to facilitate both the movement and differentiation of cells, such as neurons during normal brain development and tumor cells under pathological circumstances. Thus, CaSR/integrin complexes may function as a universal cell migration or homing complex. Manipulation of this complex may be of potential interest for treating metastatic cancers, and for developmental disorders pertaining to aberrant neuronal migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors mediate fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the mammalian central nervous system. The activation of NMDA receptors plays a key role in brain development, synaptic plasticity, and memory formation, and is a major contributor to many neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, we investigated the mechanisms that underlie the trafficking of GluN1/GluN2C receptors. Using an approach combining molecular biology, microscopy, and electrophysiology in mammalian cell lines and cultured cerebellar granule cells, we found that the surface delivery of GluN2C-containing receptors is reduced compared to GluN2A- and GluN2B-containing receptors. Furthermore, we identified three distinct regions within the N-terminus, M3 transmembrane domain, and C-terminus of GluN2C subunits that are required for proper intracellular processing and surface delivery of NMDA receptors. These results shed new light on the regulation of NMDA receptor trafficking, and these findings can be exploited to develop new strategies for treating some forms of neuropsychiatric disorders.