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Alkali-activated materials (AAMs) are regarded as a substitute for Portland cement. They have high chloride resistance and a low carbon dioxide footprint. The aim of this review is to provide a multi-scale perspective to understand material–product–microstructure–property relationships in terms of the chloride binding behaviour of AAMs. The physical and chemical chloride stability of different reaction products is summarised from nanostructure, to microstructure to macro properties. An analysis of studies in the literature gives an overview of recent progress in chloride transport in AAMs influenced by different reaction products. Results show that a higher calcium/silicon, aluminium/silicon molar ratios and alkali content increase the formation of amorphous phases, leading to a denser microstructure and lower chloride penetration in AAMs. Higher magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide contents result in increased formation of hydrotalcite. The enhanced physical and chemical absorption of chloride by hydrotalcite leads to higher resistance of chloride penetration in AAMs. Investigation of increasing chloride resistance could potentially focus on increasing gel and hydrotalcite formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium sulfoaluminate belite (CSAB) cement has gained prominence as a viable environmentally friendly substitute for conventional portland cement (PC). The current study investigates the relative performance of expansive and nonexpansive CSAB cement-based concretes, and PC-based concretes when subjected to chloride-rich conditions. Multiple testing methodologies, including surface resistivity measurements, chloride migration, rapid chloride penetration, long-term bulk diffusion, and water sorptivity, were employed to assess the durability of these concrete systems. Surface resistivity measurements indicated that CSAB systems exhibited significantly higher resistivity when compared with PC-based counterparts. Increased resistivity in CSAB systems was influenced by the conductivity of the pore solution, emphasizing that the formation factor provides a more accurate representation of the pore structure within the system. The expansive and nonexpansive CSAB cement–based concrete outperformed PC-based concrete in migration-based tests and rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT). In contrast, the CSAB and PC systems demonstrated similar performance in the long-term bulk diffusion-based test. Although CSAB systems exhibit finer pore structures than PC-based counterparts, their performance in chloride-rich environments is affected by their reduced binding capacity. The study emphasizes that the conclusions drawn from accelerated tests and resistivity measurements of CSAB cement–based concrete must be cautiously interpreted because these results may not indicate real-world performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early CO2 curing acting as a new curing technique is an effective way to cut down on carbon footprint in cement industry. It also improves the strength development and long-term durability of concrete without reinforcement. Given the fact that reinforcement concrete is most widely used in construction and building fields, the carbon sequestration potential will be enhanced remarkably if this curing technology can be used in reinforced concrete. However, the impacts of early CO2 curing on the corrosion behavior of steels, which is the major concern for reinforced concrete exposure to chloride, is unclear yet. In this work, the permeability of chloride, threshold chloride value and corrosion behaviors of steels in cement mortar were determined to comprehensively study the effect of early CO2 curing on the chloride induced corrosion of steels. Early CO2 curing lowers the chloride ions permeability of mortars, in particular for the mortars with 28 day curing ages. Steels take longer time to form stable passive films in early CO2-cured mortar than in conventional moist-cured ones. Early CO2 curing reduces the chloride threshold concentration of mortar, in particular for the mortars that the whole cross section is carbonated, the reduction reaches ∼50%. However, it exerts few effects on corrosion induction phase of steel rebar. Moreover, early CO2 curing decreases the corrosion rate of steel bars in corrosion propagation phase and thus the overall corrosion rate of steels during the whole testing process due to slower chloride ingress rate. Thus, early CO2 curing can act as an alternative curing technique in the production of pre-cast reinforced concrete exposed to chloride. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In repaired marine concrete structures, generally, an interface exists between old and new concrete, however, the influence of this interface on durability has yet not been well understood. In this study 18 reinforced concrete beams with new‐to‐old concrete interfaces (N–O interfaces) were designed to investigate chloride transport through a cracked interface. The effects of crack widths at the interface, concrete strain, and the chloride exposure time were considered, respectively. Results showed that the N–O interfaces having crack widths between 0 and 0.13 mm posed no significant impact on the chloride transport in the depth direction of the N–O interfaces, however when the crack width exceeded 0.13 mm, the chloride concentration gradually increased as the crack width increased. Chloride transport through the horizontal direction of the N–O interface was different between new and old concrete matrix when the crack width reached 0.18–0.20 mm. The surface layer with a range of 5–10 mm depth of concrete was sensitive to the variation of concrete strain, and the evolution of chloride concentration with concrete strain presented a logarithm relationship. Within the exposure period between 60 and 90 days, the increasing rate of chloride concentration was higher than that between 30 and 60 days. The study can provide some recommendations for repair of concrete elements exposed to a chloride‐laden exposure environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the harsh marine environment of chloride ion invasion and corrosion, the issues of long-term chloride transport and durability life evaluation for marine infrastructures constructed/maintained by recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) after enhancement remain poorly understood. For our studies, an accelerated carbonation modification method for recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) was adopted to prepare carbonated recycled coarse aggregate (CRCA) samples, and the macroproperties, i.e., apparent density and water absorption, of CRCA were enhanced by approximately 1.40-3.97% and 16.3-21.8%, respectively, compared with those of RCA. An in-door experiment for chloride transport into concrete specimens subjected to a simulated marine environment of alternating dryingwetting cycles was conducted. The chloride profiles and transport characteristics of carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete (CRCAC), recycled coarse aggregate concrete (RCAC), and natural coarse aggregate concrete (NCAC) were analysed and compared. The results indicated that the chloride penetration depths and concentrations of CRCAC were approximately 52.6-96.2% of those of RCAC, which highlighted the better chloride resistance of CRCAC. A chloride transport model for marine concrete structures with various coarse aggregate types in a corrosive marine environment was established. Taking a certain harbour wharf as an example, the durability life of this case considering the application of the CRCAC was evaluated based on the chloride transport model, and the durability life of the CRCAC structure was improved by approximately 28.10% compared with that of the RCAC. The CRCAC developed in this paper has improved mechanical performance and durability than those of RCAC, and it has the potential to replace the NCAC and further support the construction and maintenance of marine infrastructures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In nature, ceramides are a class of sphingolipids possessing a unique ability to self‐assemble into protein‐permeable channels with intriguing concentration‐dependent adaptive channel cavities. However, within the realm of artificial ion channels, this interesting phenomenon is scarcely represented. Herein, we report on a novel class of adaptive artificial channels, Pn‐TPPs, based on PEGylated cholic acids bearing triphenylphosphonium (TPP) groups as anion binding motifs. Interestingly, the molecules self‐assemble into chloride ion channels at low concentrations while transforming into small molecule‐permeable nanopores at high concentrations. Moreover, the TPP groups endow the molecules with mitochondria‐targeting properties, enabling them to selectively drill holes on the mitochondrial membrane of cancer cells and subsequently trigger the caspase 9 apoptotic pathway. The anticancer efficacies of Pn‐TPPs correlate with their abilities to form nanopores. Significantly, the most active ensembles formed by P5‐TPP exhibits impressive anticancer activity against human liver cancer cells, with an IC50 value of 3.8 μM. While demonstrating similar anticancer performance to doxorubicin, P5‐TPP exhibits a selectivity index surpassing that of doxorubicin by a factor of 16.8. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ClC is the main family of natural chloride channel proteins that transport Cl- across the cell membrane with high selectivity. The chloride transport and selectivity are determined by the hourglass-shaped pore and the filter located in the central and narrow region of the pore. Artificial unimolecular channel that mimics both the shape and function of the ClC selective pore is attractive, because it could provide simple molecular model to probe the intriguing mechanism and structure-function relevance of ClC. Here we elaborated upon the concept of molecular hourglass plus anion-π interactions for this purpose. The concept was validated by experimental results of molecular hourglasses using shape-persistent 1,3-alternate tetraoxacalix[2]arene[2]triazine as the central macrocyclic skeleton to control the conductance and selectivity, and anion-p interactions as the driving force to facilitate the chloride dehydration and movement along the channel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Coastal regions, home to a significant portion of the world's population, confront a formidable challenge: the corrosive impact of chloride-rich environments on vital infrastructure. These areas often host essential transportation systems, such as trains and metros, reliant on pre-existing electrical infrastructure. Unfortunately, complete isolation of this infrastructure is rarely feasible, resulting in the emergence of stray currents and electrical potentials that expedite corrosion processes. When coupled with conducive mediums facilitating chemical electrocell formation, the corrosion of reinforced concrete elements accelerates significantly. To combat this issue, international standards have been established, primarily focusing on augmenting the thickness of reinforcement bar covers and restricting stray voltage between rails and the ground. Nevertheless, these measures only provide partial solutions. When subjected to service loads, these elements develop cracks, especially when exposed to stray currents and chlorides, dramatically increasing corrosion rates. Corrosion products, which expand in volume compared to steel, exert internal forces that widen cracks, hastening the deterioration of structural elements. The study deals with the degradation of reinforced concrete columns under the combined action of loads, chloride-rich environments, and electrical voltage-simulating stray currents. In these conditions, degradation and reduction of load-bearing capacity accelerate compared to unloaded conditions, significantly amplifying the corrosion rate. Astonishingly, even in the absence of mechanical loads, stray currents alone induce tensile stresses in elements due to corrosion product formation, leading to longitudinal cracks parallel to the reinforcement bars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To forecast chloride transport in site by applying accelerated test results, it is necessary to investigate the similarity of chloride diffusivity under different environments. However, limited by test period and cost expenses, a large amount of tests in field and simulated environment are hard to conduct, and a limit test data will make prediction on chloride diffusivity of concrete less precise. To solve this problem, machine learning methods are explored to predict chloride transport. Based on the existing chloride concentration test data of fly ash concrete in natural and accelerated simulated environment, this paper establishes a chloride concentration predictive model based on the one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) method at first, and verifies the stability and accuracy of the established model. Second, similarity models for concentration ratio and diffusion time ratio based on multivariate nonlinear model and based on theoretical Fick’s second law are constructed, and the model accuracy is also tested. Finally, the chloride concentration data predicted by the 1D-CNN model is applied to the constructed similarity models respectively, and the application results are compared and analyzed to determine the optimal similarity model. Results indicate that the concentration predicted by the 1D-CNN method has a strong robustness and a small prediction error. Besides, based on multivariate nonlinear model, the error of concentration predicted by the similarity models for concentration ratio and diffusion time ratio is less than 16 % and 30 %, respectively. Similarly, according to the theoretical model based on Fick’s second law, the error of concentration predicted by the similarity models for concentration ratio based on the time dependent chloride diffusion coefficient and time dependent peak chloride concentration is less than 21 % and 36 %, respectively. The similarity model for concentration ratio based on multivariate nonlinear model has the best prediction effect.

Chloride transport within concrete is critical for the durability of reinforced concrete structures; however, its diffusion under the coupling action of temperature and humidity has not been fully comprehended. Therefore, in this work, the coupling effects of temperature, relative humidity, and mineral admixtures on chloride transport in concrete were investigated through experimental and numerical simulation work. The results show that the chloride diffusion coefficient decreases with the decreased temperature and growth of relative humidity; however, the chloride concentration on the concrete surface is increased with the growth of temperature and relative humidity. Moreover, compounding about 15% fly ash (FA) and 30% granulated ground blast furnace slag (GGBS) to replace the cement is the most beneficial for improving the antichloride capacity of concrete, considering also the strength. In addition, the numerical simulation considering the coupled effect of temperature and relative humidity of chloride transport in concrete has good agreement with that of experimental results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of stimuli‐responsive artificial H+/Cl− ion channels, capable of specifically disturbing the intracellular ion homeostasis of cancer cells, presents an intriguing opportunity for achieving high selectivity in cancer therapy. Herein, we describe a novel family of non‐covalently stapled self‐assembled artificial channels activatable by biocompatible visible light at 442 nm, which enables the co‐transport of H+/Cl− across the membrane with H+/Cl− transport selectivity of 6.0. Upon photoirradiation of the caged C4F‐L for 10 min, 90 % of ion transport efficiency can be restored, giving rise to a 10.5‐fold enhancement in cytotoxicity against human colorectal cancer cells (IC50=8.5 μM). The mechanism underlying cancer cell death mediated by the H+/Cl− channels involves the activation of the caspase 9 apoptosis pathway as well as the scarcely reported disruption of the autophagic processes. In the absence of photoirradiation, C4F‐L exhibits minimal toxicity towards normal intestine cells, even at a concentration of 200 μM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the transport mechanisms within unsaturated porous media is essential to the durability problems associated with cement-based materials. However, the involvement of multi-ions electrochemical coupling effect, especially under unsaturated condition makes the transport mechanisms even more complex. In this study, the moisture and multi-ionic transport in unsaturated concrete have been modeled in three-dimensional cases. The contribution from both water vapor and liquid has been considered in moisture transport. By adopting the constitutive electrochemical law, the electrostatic potential induced by inherent charge imbalance was calculated. With parameter calibration, the numerical results agreed well with the experimental data, proving the validity of the presented model. Results from a parametric analysis showed that neglecting multi-ions coupling effect will lead to an underestimated chloride concentration, and saturated degree has an obvious impact on the coupling strength among different ions. In addition, the existence of coarse aggregates will not only block mass transport but also make the discrepancies between two-dimensional model and three-dimensional model results more obvious. Other findings which have not been reported in existing studies are also highlighted. Article Highlights: The coupled moisture and multi-ionic transport process has been modeled in three dimensions for the first time. The anomalous moisture transport has been considered by time-dependent water permeability. The higher saturation degree has been found to amplify the multi-ions coupling intensity in porous media. The model heterogeneity and dimension should be properly considered to obtain more accurate numerical result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Use of soda residue as engineering backfill is the most practical and economical method for reusing soda residue. In the existing research on soda residue soil as engineering backfill, most scholars focus on the bearing capacity of a soda residue foundation, while ignoring the failure of reinforced concrete (RC) built on soda residue foundation caused by the residue's high salinity and high water content. In this study, a semiburied concrete indoor natural exposure experiment in a soda residue soil environment was conducted to investigate chloride transport between the foundation and the concrete, considering the effects of water environmental factors, including groundwater level of the foundation, relative humidity (RH) above ground, saturation of the foundation, and precipitation. The results show that chloride concentration in the above-ground part of the concrete (enriched in a range from ground level to a height of 100 mm) is apparently higher than that in the below-ground part, while chloride concentration in the concrete below the groundwater level is slightly higher than that from groundwater level to ground level. In the above-ground part of the concrete, the chloride concentration decreases with RH above ground. In the below-ground part, the chloride concentration in the unsaturated soda residue soil environment is higher than that in the saturated soda residue soil environment. Precipitation can effectively reduce chloride in the concrete in a soda residue foundation, while the total invasion of chloride decreases from 9 to 3 g in 120 and 180 days compared with that in a nonprecipitation environment. The time-dependent prediction empirical model of concrete chloride concentration in a soda residue foundation environment was established by introducing water environmental parameters of groundwater level of the foundation, RH above ground, saturation of the foundation, and precipitation environment. The reference apparent chloride diffusion coefficient D0 is 33.6×10−12 , 33.9×10−12 , and 20.01×10−12 m2/s in groundwater, from groundwater level to ground level, and above-ground, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal regions, home to a significant portion of the world’s population, confront a formidable challenge: the corrosive impact of chloride-rich environments on vital infrastructure. These areas often host essential transportation systems, such as trains and metros, reliant on pre-existing electrical infrastructure. Unfortunately, complete isolation of this infrastructure is rarely feasible, resulting in the emergence of stray currents and electrical potentials that expedite corrosion processes. When coupled with conducive mediums facilitating chemical electrocell formation, the corrosion of reinforced concrete elements accelerates significantly. To combat this issue, international standards have been established, primarily focusing on augmenting the thickness of reinforcement bar covers and restricting stray voltage between rails and the ground. Nevertheless, these measures only provide partial solutions. When subjected to service loads, these elements develop cracks, especially when exposed to stray currents and chlorides, dramatically increasing corrosion rates. Corrosion products, which expand in volume compared to steel, exert internal forces that widen cracks, hastening the deterioration of structural elements. The study deals with the degradation of reinforced concrete columns under the combined action of loads, chloride-rich environments, and electrical voltage-simulating stray currents. In these conditions, degradation and reduction of load-bearing capacity accelerate compared to unloaded conditions, significantly amplifying the corrosion rate. Astonishingly, even in the absence of mechanical loads, stray currents alone induce tensile stresses in elements due to corrosion product formation, leading to longitudinal cracks parallel to the reinforcement bars.

Single molecules that co‐transport cations as well as anions across lipid membranes are few despite their high biological utility. The elegant yet simple lipidomimmetic peptide design herein enables efficient HCl transport without the use of any external additives for proton transport. The carboxylic acids in the dipeptide scaffold provide a handle to append two long hydrophobic tails and also provide a polar hydrophilic carboxylate group. The peptide central unit also provides NH sites for anion binding. Protonation of the carboxylate group coupled with the weak halide binding of the terminal NH group results in HCl transport with transport rates of H+>Cl−. The lipid‐like structure also facilitates seamless membrane integration and flipping of the molecule. The biocompatibility, design simplicity, and potential pH regulation of these molecules open up several avenues for their therapeutic use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chloride transport is a vital issue in the research on the durability of alkali-activated materials (AAMs). Nevertheless, due to its miscellaneous types, complex mix proportions, and limitations in testing methods, the reports of different studies are numerous and vary greatly. Therefore, in order to promote the application and development of AAMs in chloride environments, this work systematically reviews the chloride transport behavior and mechanism, solidification of chloride, influencing factors, and test method of chloride transport of AAMs, along with conclusions regarding instructive insights to the chloride transport problem of AAMs in future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endosomes and lysosomes are intracellular vesicular organelles with important roles in cell functions such as protein homeostasis, clearance of extracellular material, and autophagy. Endolysosomes are characterized by an acidic luminal pH that is critical for proper function. Five members of the gene family of voltage-gated ChLoride Channels (CLC proteins) are localized to endolysosomal membranes, carrying out anion/proton exchange activity and thereby regulating pH and chloride concentration. Mutations in these vesicular CLCs cause global developmental delay, intellectual disability, various psychiatric conditions, lysosomal storage diseases, and neurodegeneration, resulting in severe pathologies or even death. Currently, there is no cure for any of these diseases. Here, we review the various diseases in which these proteins are involved and discuss the peculiar biophysical properties of the WT transporter and how these properties are altered in specific neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) cement is an environmentally friendly material and has its specific characteristics, including good resistance to ingress of external chlorides. To date, performance evolution and relevant mechanism of CSA cement-based materials during its service in chloride environment are still not clear, and needs a thorough study before its widely application in practice. This paper reviews the research progress on the chloride transport, chloride binding and corrosion behavior of steel in CSA cement under chloride environment. The crucial factors influencing the resistance of CSA cement-based materials to chloride attack are emphasized, such as water-to-binder ratio, molar ratio of gypsum to ye'elimite and use of supplementary cementitious materials. Meanwhile, future research directions on chloride related durability issues of CSA are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key problems that affect the durability of reinforced concrete structures is the corrosion of rebar induced by chloride. Despite the complicated transport mechanism of chloride ions in cementitious materials, diffusion is still the key mechanism of chloride ingress. The determination of the chloride diffusion coefficient will help to predict the chloride profile inside the cementitious materials and estimate the service life with regard to chloride-induced corrosion. However, this paper shows that the chloride diffusion coefficient in the literature is sometimes misunderstood. Such a misunderstanding results in the overestimation of the chloride resistance of cementitious materials. To clarify the chloride diffusion coefficient, this paper first presents the steady- and non-steady-state diffusion equations in cementitious materials. The factors that influence the diffusive flux are identified. The effective and apparent diffusion coefficients are then clearly explained and properly defined. We also point out the obscure definitions of the effective diffusion coefficient in the literature. The varied definitions of the effective diffusion coefficient are the result of the consideration of different factors affecting the diffusion process. Subsequently, this paper discusses two natural diffusion test methods that are frequently employed in cementitious materials to measure the chloride diffusion coefficient. The influencing factors considered by the measured diffusion coefficients are analyzed in detail. Then, the diffusion coefficients determined in some of the studies are reviewed. It is shown that three typical errors could occur when numerically determining the diffusion coefficients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chloride transport within concrete is critical for the durability of reinforced concrete structures; however, its diffusion under the coupling action of temperature and humidity has not been fully comprehended. Therefore, in this work, the coupling effects of temperature, relative humidity, and mineral admixtures on chloride transport in concrete were investigated through experimental and numerical simulation work. The results show that the chloride diffusion coefficient decreases with the decreased temperature and growth of relative humidity; however, the chloride concentration on the concrete surface is increased with the growth of temperature and relative humidity. Moreover, compounding about 15% fly ash (FA) and 30% granulated ground blast furnace slag (GGBS) to replace the cement is the most beneficial for improving the antichloride capacity of concrete, considering also the strength. In addition, the numerical simulation considering the coupled effect of temperature and relative humidity of chloride transport in concrete has good agreement with that of experimental results.

The sodium–potassium–chloride transporter NKCC1 of the SLC12 family performs Na+‐dependent Cl−‐ and K+‐ion uptake across plasma membranes. NKCC1 is important for regulating cell volume, hearing, blood pressure, and regulation of hyperpolarizing GABAergic and glycinergic signaling in the central nervous system. Here, we present a 2.6 Å resolution cryo‐electron microscopy structure of human NKCC1 in the substrate‐loaded (Na+, K+, and 2 Cl−) and occluded, inward‐facing state that has also been observed for the SLC6‐type transporters MhsT and LeuT. Cl− binding at the Cl1 site together with the nearby K+ ion provides a crucial bridge between the LeuT‐fold scaffold and bundle domains. Cl−‐ion binding at the Cl2 site seems to undertake a structural role similar to conserved glutamate of SLC6 transporters and may allow for Cl−‐sensitive regulation of transport. Supported by functional studies in mammalian cells and computational simulations, we describe a putative Na+ release pathway along transmembrane helix 5 coupled to the Cl2 site. The results provide insight into the structure–function relationship of NKCC1 with broader implications for other SLC12 family members. Synopsis: The Na+‐K+‐2Cl− cotransporter NKCC1 (SLC12A2) performs Na+‐dependent uptake of Cl− and K+ ions and is an important factor in ion homeostasis and osmotic control. Its mechanisms of ion recognition and release are addressed here by cryo‐EM microscopy, ion uptake studies, and molecular dynamics simulations. A 2.6 Å resolution cryo‐EM map reveals lipid molecules at a dimeric interface and three cholesterol molecules per protomer that regulate its transport activity.Analysis of the revealed intracellular water networks and bound ions indicates that the Cl– ion at a Cl2 site is released reversibly prior to Na+ release.Intracellular Na+ ion release is modeled and indicates guidance along transmembrane helix 5 by two negatively charged glutamate residues.The Cl2 site, which overlaps with a conserved glutamate residue in the SLC6 transporter, may sense chloride to regulate transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the chloride diffusion behaviour of coral aggregate concrete (CAC) exposed to marine submerged, tidal, and salt spray zones was investigated, and the effect of the fly ash (FA) content on the chloride diffusion was explored. The chloride concentration was measured using the potentiometric method, and the Ca(OH)₂ content in the CAC was calculated using the thermogravimetric method. The results show that the chloride concentration in the submerged zone decreases with an increasing erosion depth; meanwhile, in the tidal and salt spray zones, the chloride concentration showed a two-stage distribution pattern. The depth of the convective zone gradually increases with an increasing erosion time, and the depth of the convective zone in the salt spray zone is larger than that in the tidal zone. The chloride diffusion coefficient exhibits a power-function attenuation relationship with erosion time when exposed to different corrosion zones. The attenuation coefficient of the chloride diffusion coefficient increases with an increasing FA content. Moreover, the attenuation coefficient is the highest in the salt spray zone with it being 10.8% to 28.5% higher than that of the tidal zone. In addition, the Ca(OH)₂ content in the tidal zone is not only the lowest, but also gradually decreases with an increasing erosion time.

This study presents a state-of-the-art review on the influence of external loads on chloride ingress into concrete, including compressive, tensile, flexural and fatigue loads. The macro-experimental phenomenon, micro-influence mechanism, analytical models, numerical simulation are critically reviewed, and the further trends are proposed. For compressive stress, there is a critical stress level, below which chloride transport is slowed down, and above which it is accelerated. The critical value ranges from 0.3 to 0.8. Tensile stress would accelerate chloride transport in concrete. The influence of bending loads on chloride transport depends on the local stress-strain state. For fatigue loads, their effect is determined by the accumulated damage of concrete. Overall, the influence mechanism of high stress levels on chloride transport is well understood from existing micro-CT experimental results. However, in order to elucidate the mechanisms by which low stress levels reduce chloride ingress, further research is needed to investigate the variations in small pores and narrow cracks in concrete caused by external loads. In addition, in view of the individual limitations of physical models and ML models, physics-guided deep learning may present a highly effective solution to establish an accurate and reliable platform for concrete durability assessment, as it harmoniously combines the formidable predictive power of ML with the explanatory power of traditional physical models. • Critical compressive stress level that affects chloride ingress is between 0.3 and 0.8. • Influence of bending loads on chloride ingress depends on local stress-strain state. • Variations in small pores and narrow cracks under external loads need to be further studied. • Physics-guided ML may offer an effective solution to establish a reliable platform for concrete durability assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In marine environments, traditional ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and reinforced concrete structures are prone to corrosion, reducing their durability and service life dramatically. Geopolymers, with exceptional corrosion resistance, have great value and application potential in marine engineering. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the research advances on geopolymer cements and concretes in marine environments in terms of mechanical properties, durability, and structural properties. The research so far has demonstrated that geopolymers exhibit superior mechanical properties and durability due to their denser interface and lower porosity compared to OPC. However, geopolymers have significant brittleness defects, and their performance in marine environments, especially in splash and tidal zones with alternating wet and dry conditions, is severely affected. This is due to the influence of chloride ions, divalent cations, pH, and sulfate in seawater, which promote or inhibit the formation and transformation of reaction products and microstructures, thereby affecting their mechanical properties and stability. Nevertheless, the use of composite technologies such as modified precursors, fibers, and nanomaterials has a positive effect on enhancing their structural properties and durability. This provides guidance and solutions for the application of high-durability, low-carbon emission, and more sustainable building materials in maritime engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transmembrane chloride transport is a fundamental biological process, and its impairment is at the origin of severe genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis. Synthetic anion carriers able to transport chloride and other anions across biological membranes are considered as putative candidates for treating these syndromes. We have proposed diphosphine–Pd(II) complexes as a new class of anion carriers and in this contribution we have investigated the ionophoric activity of a family of Pd(II) complexes with diphosphine chelating ligands differing for the ligand bite angle that is varied from 71° (dppm) to 98° (dppb). Moreover, in the case of the dppe ligand we also investigated the effect of the introduction in the ligand structure of alkyl substituents of increasing length and hydrophobicity and of electron donor and withdrawing substituents. All the complexes investigated are able to transport chloride across the phospholipid membrane of liposomes and the most important parameter influencing their relative efficacy is the lipophilicity of the complex with the highest activity observed for [Pd(pEt‐dppe)Cl2]. On the contrary the bite angle of the ligand appears to be not relevant while the activity is diminished by the insertion of both EWG and EDG groups on the phenyl substituents of the phosphine ligands. Finally, also Ni(II) and Cu(I) complexes display ionophoric activity demonstrating that the transport ability of metal complexes is not limited to Pd(II) metal ion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-frequency vibration helps to improve the compactness of concrete, but also causes the settlement of coarse aggregates (CAs) and then affects the durability of hardened concrete. In this paper, a numerical study combining multi-phase CA settlement model and multi-component ionic transport model is performed to understand the influence of vibration-induced settlement on long-term chloride transport in concrete. Through parametric analysis, the influence mechanism of relevant factors on both chloride profile distribution and reinforcement corrosion initiation is discussed in detail. The results indicate that with the increase of vibration time, a decrease of chloride concentration appears in the bottom part of concrete specimen and a significant increase in the top part, because more CAs deposit in the bottom layer. Due to sedimentation, a more obvious fluctuation of chloride concentration along the height direction can be observed in the concrete mixed with a larger density and particle size of CAs. According to the model prediction, the corrosion of the top steel bar initiates 1.03–1.80 years earlier than that of the bottom steel bar under the same parameters. In practical engineering, special attention should be paid on the stability of fresh concrete and vibrating procedures to avoid obvious CA settlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interfacial zone of new–old concrete in precast concrete structure is the natural weak part in durability, and fatigue stress and an aggressive medium will accelerate the durability degradation of the interfacial zone. To study the chloride transport behavior in the interfacial zone of new–old concrete joints of precast prestressed bridges under the combined action of fatigue load and chloride penetration, a set of long-term (90–360 days) and low-frequency (0.3 Hz) experiments was carried out in this paper, where three fatigue stress ranges and four exposure durations were set as the main variables. The results indicated that the chloride content in the interfacial zone is higher than that present elsewhere, which shows the interfacial zone effect (IZE). By introducing the index of IZE, the influence laws of fatigue stress range and exposure duration on the IZE are revealed, namely as the fatigue stress range increases, the IZE first increases and then decreases, and as the exposure duration increases, the IZE decreases invariably. Moreover, the influence mechanism of fatigue stress range and exposure duration on the distribution and evolution of chloride concentration in the interfacial zone is analyzed. Considering the heterogeneous distribution of mesocomposition and internal defects (pores) in the interfacial zone of new–old concrete, the model of the chloride diffusion coefficient is established. Based on the relationship between volume strain and porosity, and the relationship between strain and specific crack area, a revised model of the effective chloride diffusion coefficient in the interfacial zone under fatigue stress is proposed. The accuracy of the revised model was verified by physical experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Membrane transport proteins undergo multistep conformational changes to fulfill the transport of substrates across biological membranes. Substrate release and uptake are the most important events of these multistep reactions that accompany significant conformational changes. Thus, their relevant structural intermediates should be identified to better understand the molecular mechanism. However, their identifications have not been achieved for most transporters due to the difficulty of detecting the intermediates. Herein, we report the success of these identifications for a light-driven chloride transporter halorhodopsin (HR). We compared the time course of two flash-induced signals during a single transport cycle. One is a potential change of Cl - -selective membrane, which enabled us to detect tiny Cl - -concentration changes due to the Cl - release and the subsequent Cl - -uptake reactions by HR. The other is the absorbance change of HR reflecting the sequential formations and decays of structural intermediates. Their comparison revealed not only the intermediates associated with the key reactions but also the presence of two additional Cl - -binding sites on the Cl - -transport pathways. The subsequent mutation studies identified one of the sites locating the protein surface on the releasing side. Thus, this determination also clarified the Cl - -transport pathway from the initial binding site until the release to the medium., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Endosomes and lysosomes are intracellular vesicular organelles with important roles in cell functions such as protein homeostasis, clearance of extracellular material, and autophagy. Endolysosomes are characterized by an acidic luminal pH that is critical for proper function. Five members of the gene family of voltage-gated ChLoride Channels (CLC proteins) are localized to endolysosomal membranes, carrying out anion/proton exchange activity and thereby regulating pH and chloride concentration. Mutations in these vesicular CLCs cause global developmental delay, intellectual disability, various psychiatric conditions, lysosomal storage diseases, and neurodegeneration, resulting in severe pathologies or even death. Currently, there is no cure for any of these diseases. Here, we review the various diseases in which these proteins are involved and discuss the peculiar biophysical properties of the WT transporter and how these properties are altered in specific neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Chloride transport is a vital issue in the research on the durability of alkali-activated materials (AAMs). Nevertheless, due to its miscellaneous types, complex mix proportions, and limitations in testing methods, the reports of different studies are numerous and vary greatly. Therefore, in order to promote the application and development of AAMs in chloride environments, this work systematically reviews the chloride transport behavior and mechanism, solidification of chloride, influencing factors, and test method of chloride transport of AAMs, along with conclusions regarding instructive insights to the chloride transport problem of AAMs in future work.

One of the key problems that affect the durability of reinforced concrete structures is the corrosion of rebar induced by chloride. Despite the complicated transport mechanism of chloride ions in cementitious materials, diffusion is still the key mechanism of chloride ingress. The determination of the chloride diffusion coefficient will help to predict the chloride profile inside the cementitious materials and estimate the service life with regard to chloride-induced corrosion. However, this paper shows that the chloride diffusion coefficient in the literature is sometimes misunderstood. Such a misunderstanding results in the overestimation of the chloride resistance of cementitious materials. To clarify the chloride diffusion coefficient, this paper first presents the steady- and non-steady-state diffusion equations in cementitious materials. The factors that influence the diffusive flux are identified. The effective and apparent diffusion coefficients are then clearly explained and properly defined. We also point out the obscure definitions of the effective diffusion coefficient in the literature. The varied definitions of the effective diffusion coefficient are the result of the consideration of different factors affecting the diffusion process. Subsequently, this paper discusses two natural diffusion test methods that are frequently employed in cementitious materials to measure the chloride diffusion coefficient. The influencing factors considered by the measured diffusion coefficients are analyzed in detail. Then, the diffusion coefficients determined in some of the studies are reviewed. It is shown that three typical errors could occur when numerically determining the diffusion coefficients.

This paper presents experimental investigations into the effects of ultrafine blast furnace slag on microstructure improvements against chloride penetration in saturated and unsaturated cementitious systems exposed to cyclic drying–wetting conditions. The hydration kinetics of ultrafine slag powders and pore solution chemistry in slag-blended cementitious systems at different ages, together with the main hydration products and pore structure characteristics, were determined. The chloride profiles accounting for different slag contents and drying–wetting cycles were measured. The results reveal that the reactivity of ultrafine slag can be well described with Avrami's equation. The dilution effect of the slag predominated the pore solution chemistry, and the pH value decreased with a higher inclusion of slag. An optimal inclusion of 65% slag by mass of the binder corresponding to the finest pore structure and highest hydrotalcite content was found, which provides a reasonable basis for the slow chloride diffusion and high chloride binding. Under drying–wetting exposure, the specimen with a lower saturation exhibited a higher chloride transport caused by capillary absorption in the skin layer. The chloride transport tended to be diffusion controlled after sufficient drying–wetting cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Histamine is a key mediator of the anti-inflammatory activity conferred by the probiotic organism Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC PTA 6475 in animal models of colitis and colorectal cancer. In L. reuteri, histamine synthesis and secretion requires l-histidine decarboxylase and a l-histidine/histamine exchanger. Chloride channel (ClC)-family proton/chloride antiporters have been proposed to act as electrochemical shunts in conjunction with amino acid decarboxylase systems, correcting ion imbalances generated by decarboxylation through fixed ratio exchange of two chloride ions for one proton. This family is unique among transporters by facilitating ion flux in either direction. Here we examine the histidine decarboxylase system in relation to ClC antiporters in the probiotic organism Lactobacillus reuteri. Results In silico analyses reveal that L. reuteri possesses two ClC transporters, EriC and EriC2, as well as a complete histidine decarboxylase gene cluster (HDC) for the synthesis and export of histamine. When the transport activity of either proton/chloride antiporter is disrupted by genetic manipulation, bacterial histamine output is reduced. Using fluorescent reporter assays, we further show that ClC transporters affect histamine output by altering intracellular pH and membrane potential. ClC transport also alters the expression and activity of two key HDC genes: the histidine decarboxylase (hdcA) and the histidine/histamine exchanger (hdcP). Conclusions Histamine production is a potentially beneficial feature for intestinal microbes by promoting long-term colonization and suppression of inflammation and host immune responses. ClC transporters may serve as tunable modulators for histamine production by L. reuteri and other gut microbes.

Together with its β-subunit OSTM1, ClC-7 performs 2Cl - /H + exchange across lysosomal membranes. Pathogenic variants in either gene cause lysosome-related pathologies, including osteopetrosis and lysosomal storage. CLCN7 variants can cause recessive or dominant disease. Different variants entail different sets of symptoms. Loss of ClC-7 causes osteopetrosis and mostly neuronal lysosomal storage. A recently reported de novo CLCN7 mutation (p.Tyr715Cys) causes widespread severe lysosome pathology (hypopigmentation, organomegaly, and delayed myelination and development, "HOD syndrome"), but no osteopetrosis. We now describe two additional HOD individuals with the previously described p.Tyr715Cys and a novel p.Lys285Thr mutation, respectively. Both mutations decreased ClC-7 inhibition by PI(3,5)P 2 and affected residues lining its binding pocket, and shifted voltage-dependent gating to less positive potentials, an effect partially conferred to WT subunits in WT/mutant heteromers. This shift predicts augmented pH gradient-driven Cl - uptake into vesicles. Overexpressing either mutant induced large lysosome-related vacuoles. This effect depended on Cl - /H + -exchange, as shown using mutants carrying uncoupling mutations. Fibroblasts from the p.Y715C patient also displayed giant vacuoles. This was not observed with p.K285T fibroblasts probably due to residual PI(3,5)P 2 sensitivity. The gain of function caused by the shifted voltage-dependence of either mutant likely is the main pathogenic factor. Loss of PI(3,5)P 2 inhibition will further increase current amplitudes, but may not be a general feature of HOD. Overactivity of ClC-7 induces pathologically enlarged vacuoles in many tissues, which is distinct from lysosomal storage observed with the loss of ClC-7 function. Osteopetrosis results from a loss of ClC-7, but osteoclasts remain resilient to increased ClC-7 activity., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Ocular surface hydration is critical for eye health and its impairment can lead to dry eye disease. Extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is regulator of ion transport in epithelial cells expressing cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl - channel. CFTR is also a major ion channel in ocular surface epithelia, however the roles of CaSR in ocular surface are not well studied. This study aims to investigate expression and functional roles of CaSR in ocular surface., Methods: CaSR immunostaining was performed in mouse and human cornea and conjunctiva. Ocular surface potential difference (OSPD) and tear fluid volume measurements were performed in mice with topically applied cinacalcet (CaSR activator) and NPS-2143 (CaSR inhibitor)., Results: CaSR is expressed in corneal and conjunctival epithelia of mice and humans. Topically administered CaSR activator cinacalcet inhibits cAMP agonist forskolin-induced Cl - secretion and CFTR activity up to 90 %. CaSR inhibitor NPS-2143 stimulates CFTR-mediated Cl - secretion in mouse ocular surface, after which cAMP agonist forskolin had minimal additional secretory effects. Single dose NPS-2143 treatment (as an eye drop) increases tear fluid volume in mice by ∼60 % compared to vehicle treatment. NPS-2143 effect on tear volume lasts at least 8 h after single dose., Conclusions: CaSR is a key regulator of ocular surface ion transport and CaSR inhibition promotes Cl - and tear secretion in the ocular surface. If they are found to be effective in in dry eye models, CaSR inhibitors (currently in clinical development) can potentially be repurposed as novel prosecretory treatments for dry eye disease., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Studies of chloride‐induced corrosion in reinforced concrete structures are performed based on the reliable predictions of chloride and moisture distributions in concrete. This paper adopted the Laplace Transformation and the inverse Laplace Transformation to obtain the analytical solutions of the moisture‐chloride two‐way coupled transport processes. Additionally, the model has involved with realistic material parameters to predict the internal distributions of relative humidity and free chloride ions in concrete samples. To illustrate the accuracy of the present model, the calculations were compared with the available experimental results, and good agreements were obtained. It indicates that the present analytical model can successfully characterize the two‐way coupling effects between chloride transport and moisture diffusion in concrete; and the model can provide the distribution profiles of both chloride and relative humidity in concrete, which are useful for predicting the service life of reinforced concrete structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The large number of interfacial zones of precast and cast‐in‐place concrete weakens the durability and resistance to chloride penetration of fabricated structures. This study investigated the chloride transport behavior in the interfacial zone of precast and cast‐in‐place concrete through long‐term wet–dry cycle experiments. The two influencing factors of compressive stress and distance to the interface were investigated. A chloride concentration test was conducted to investigate the chloride distribution profile, the chloride diffusion coefficient Dapp, and the surface chloride concentration Cs,∆x. The values of Dapp and Cs,∆x correlated with both the location in the interfacial zone and compressive stress, and both dependencies showed complex interactions. All specimens showed different degrees of this interfacial zone effect, which was weakened by compressive stress. Based on the test results, empirical models were developed (by regression) to quantify the dependences of Dapp and Cs,∆x to both compressive stress level and distance to the interface. Applicability of the models was verified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soda residue soil (SRS) is a man-made engineering foundation soil formed by soda residue; it is mainly distributed in coastal areas in China. SRS is rich in a variety of corrosive salts, among which the concentrations of chloride ions are about 2–3 times that of seawater. These highly concentrated chloride ions migrate and diffuse in reinforced concrete (RC) structures built on coastal SRS through multiple transport mechanisms. However, current research on the durability of RC structures exposed to the coastal SRS environment has not led to the publication of any reports in the literature. SRS may be classified by analyzing the quantitative relationships among the corrosive ions it contains. In this paper, the deterioration of RC structures due to the corrosive saline-soil environment in China is discussed, and advances in RC structure durability under such circumstances are reviewed. Our findings show that a corrosive environment, especially when this is a result of coastal SRS, has a significant influence on the deterioration of RC structures, greatly threatening such buildings. A series of effective measures for enhancing the durability of RC structures in saline soil, including improvements in concrete strength, reductions in the water–binder ratio, the addition of mineral admixtures and fiber-reinforcing agents, etc., could provide a vital foundation for enhancing the durability of RC structures which are at risk due to coastal SRS. Vital issues that must be investigated regarding the durability of RC structures are proposed, including the transport mechanism and a prediction model of corrosive ions, dominated by chloride ions (Cl−), in SRS and RC structures, the deterioration mechanism of RC materials, a long-term performance deduction process of RC components, durability design theory, and effective performance enhancement measures. The findings of this paper provide some clear exploration directions for the development of basic theories regarding RC structure durability in coastal SRS environments and go some way to making up for the research gap regarding RC structure durability under corrosive soil environments.

Cement is widely used in marine concrete, and its resistance to chloride ion corrosion has been widely considered. In this paper, based on a laboratory test, the influence of different hydrostatic pressures, coarse aggregate contents and w/c ratios on the chloride resistance performance is analyzed. Based on COMSOL finite element software, a two-dimensional cementitious materials model is established, and the simulation results are compared with the experimental results. The results show that the penetration depth of chloride ions in cement increases with the increase of the w/c ratio. Under the hydrostatic pressure of 0 MPa, when the w/c ratio is 0.35, the penetration depth of chloride ions is 7.4 mm, and the simulation result is 8.0 mm. When the w/c ratio is 0.45, the penetration depth of chloride ions is 9.3 mm, and the simulation result is 9.9 mm. When the w/c ratio is 0.55, the penetration depth of chloride ions is 12.9 mm, and the simulation result is 12.1 mm. Under different hydrostatic pressures, the penetration depth of chloride ions obviously changes, and with the increase in hydrostatic pressure, the penetration depth of chloride ions deepens. Under the w/c ratio of 0.35, when the hydrostatic pressure is 0.5 MPa, the penetration depth of chloride ions is 11.3 mm, and the simulation result is 12.1 mm. When the hydrostatic pressure is 1.0 MPa, the penetration depth of chloride ions is 16.2 mm, and the simulation result is 17.5 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Identifying the spatiotemporal variability of chloride diffusion in concrete. • Constructing a probabilistic framework for diffusion coefficient. • Developing a probabilistic model for service life prediction of marine structure. • Identifying the influence of random and non-random variables. Chloride-induced corrosion involves multiple factors and uncertainties. This study focuses on the probabilistic and multifactorial prediction model for the reliability and service life of reinforced concrete structures in marine environments. We present a new probabilistic framework to quantify the uncertainty of chloride transport by mesoscopic statistics and Spearman correlation analysis and develop a modified chloride transport model, incorporating multi-factors such as time dependence, admixture usage, temperature, relative humidity, stress level, freeze-thaw cycles, chloride binding capacity, aggregate volume fraction, aggregate particle size, and concrete deterioration. Taking the Shenzhen-Zhongshan Bridge as an example, by considering the chloride diffusion coefficient, concrete cover thickness, convection zone thickness, critical chloride concentration, and surface chloride concentration as random variables, the first-order reliability method (FORM) was employed to determine the time-variant reliability index and service life of the example bridge in different environmental conditions, encompassing atmospheric, splashing, tidal, and submerged zones. The sensitivity of the time-variant reliability to these random variables and the impact of the non-random variables on the reliability index were investigated quantitatively and comparatively. The findings reveal significant temporal and spatial variability in chloride diffusion coefficients due to the random arrangement of aggregates within concrete. The study demonstrates that concrete cover thickness and chloride diffusion coefficient are the most influential variables on structural reliability and emphasizes the substantial impact of admixtures, concrete deterioration, and environmental factors on the time-variant reliability. This research offers a significant reference in the reliability design, safety assessment, and maintenance of concrete structures in chloride-rich environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explored the penetration of chloride into concrete damaged by high-cycle compressive fatigue loading. Two environmental conditions including immersion and wetting-drying cycles were prepared for experimentally investigating the transport performance of chloride in fatigue-damaged concrete. Additionally, a prediction model was developed with the damage index of residual strain. Test results revealed that both apparent diffusion coefficients and contents of chloride at each depth increased in fatigue-damaged concrete, indicating that the fatigue damage significantly degraded the resistance of concrete to chloride penetration. Furthermore, for fatigue damaged concretes with extremely different fatigue cycles and load levels but the same residual strain, the chloride ion content profiles were highly overlapped, which demonstrated the reasonability of selecting residual strains as fatigue damage indexes. The applicability of the transport model was firstly validated with the measured chloride contents and then the chloride transport behavior in gradient fatigue-damaged concrete was investigated numerically using the validated model. The numerical results indicated that the chloride transport was more sensitive to the residual strain at the exposed edge than to the residual curvature and the effect of the later can be neglected. • Fatigue loading definitely accelerate the penetration of chloride ions into concrete. • Transport model of chloride was developed in terms of the residual strain. • The rates of chloride transports were more sensitive to the residual strain at the exposed edge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Use of recycled fine aggregates from clay bricks (RFCB) in the preparation of eco-friendly concrete was proposed to tackle the river sand (RS) shortage and satisfy the construction demand. This study explored the surface activity of RFCB influenced by additional water and particle size distribution (PSD) on the hydration, microstructure and chloride transport of concrete. Compared to the RS, more silica and alumina released from RFCB depending on its PSD under alkaline environment was noted, which verified its appreciable surface activity. Overall, the presence of RFCB could hinder early hydration process because of the higher additional water, while the surface activity and nucleation effect supplied from finer RFCB were beneficial for the improvement of the hydration kinetics. Furthermore, inclusion of RFCB increased the total pore volume and porosity but performed better in refining the pore size distribution, thus decreased the average pore diameter. The surface activity of RFCB decreased CH content while increased chemical bond water and additional hydrates, thereby leading to enhancement of the compactness of interface, cement matrix and surface rim. More importantly, RFCB helped to decrease the chloride migration coefficient and electric flux. Though the surface activity of RFCB was beneficial in the strength development, it could not offset a deteriorated influence of porous RFCB with a higher replacement. • RFCB possesses an appreciable surface activity depending on its PSD. • Inclusion of RFCB performs better in improving the compactness of interface and surface rim. • Surface activity of RFCB improves the hydration kinetics and mitigate chloride transport. • Surface activity of RFCB cannot compensate its porous structure at a high replacement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Congenital chloride diarrhea (CCD) in a newborn is a rare autosomal recessive disorder with life-threatening complications, requiring early diagnostics and treatment to prevent severe dehydration and infant mortality. SLC26A3 rs386833481 (c.392C>G; p.P131R) gene polymorphism is an important genetic determinant of CCD. Here, we report the influence of the non-synonymous SLC26A3 variant rs386833481 gene polymorphism on the function of the epithelial barrier and the potential mechanisms of these effects. Results We found that P131R-SLC26A3 increased dysfunction of the epithelial barrier compared with wild type SLC26A3 in human colonic Caco-2 and mouse colonic CMT-93 cells. When P131R-SLC26A3 was subsequently reverted to wild type, the epithelial barrier function was restored similar to wild type cells. Further study demonstrated that variant P131R-SLC26A3 disrupts function of epithelial barrier through two distinct molecular mechanisms: (a) decreasing SLC26A3 expression through a ubiquitination pathway and (b) disrupting a key interaction with its partner ZO-1/CFTR, thereby increasing the epithelial permeability. Conclusion Our study provides an important insight of SLC26A3 SNPs in the regulation of the epithelial permeability and indicates that SLC26A3 rs386833481 is likely a causative mutation in the dysfunction of epithelial barrier of CCD, and correction of this SNP or increasing SLC26A3 function could be therapeutically beneficial for chronic diarrhea diseases.

Artificial chloride transporters have been intensely investigated in view of their potential medicinal applications. Recently, we have established 1,8-diamidocarbazoles as a versatile platform for the development of active chloride carriers. In the present contribution, we investigate the influence of various electron-withdrawing substituents in positions 3 and 6 of the carbazole core on the chloride transport activity of these anionophores. Using lucigenin assay and large unilamellar vesicles as models, the 3,6-dicyano- and 3,6-dinitro- substituted receptors were found to be highly active and perfectly deliverable chloride transporters, with EC50,270s value as low as 22 nM for the Cl−/NO3− exchange. Mechanistic studies revealed that diamidocarbazoles form 1:1 complexes with chloride in lipid bilayers and facilitate chloride/nitrate exchange by carrier mechanism. Furthermore, owing to its increased acidity, the 3,6-dinitro- substituted receptor acts as a pH-switchable transporter, with physiologically relevant apparent pKa of 6.4.

Chloride transport in marine concrete under loading is the main cause of its structural deterioration. The traditional numerical simulation assumes that the coefficient of chloride transport is constant, resulting in a large deviation in the prediction results. Based on the porous medium theory, micromechanics theory, and the idea of equivalent homogenization, a multi-scale model of the effective diffusion variable coefficient of chloride transport under bending load was established, which was calculated and programmed by the numerical analysis. The results show that the prediction values of the two-dimensional variable coefficient model are basically consistent with those in the literature, and the prediction accuracy is significantly improved. In addition, the theoretical simulation proves that the bending load affects the porosity of the cement matrix, and then the diffusion coefficient of chloride is changed in concrete. The compression zone can slow down the chloride transport process, while tension zone will accelerate it. The chloride concentration under tension zone is 42.1% higher than that under compression zone when the diffusion time is 200 days and the concrete depth is 15 mm.