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Submitted by Diana Mirela da Silva Toso (diana.toso@unesp.br) on 2021-04-09T23:51:59Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TOSO, Diana Mirela da Silva_2021_Dissertação.pdf: 25947550 bytes, checksum: d1ab98c54b2833831f9b756e4c1555ba (MD5) Approved for entry into archive by Claudia Adriana Spindola null (claudia@fct.unesp.br) on 2021-04-12T11:46:30Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 toso_dms_me_prud.pdf: 25947550 bytes, checksum: d1ab98c54b2833831f9b756e4c1555ba (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2021-04-12T11:46:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 toso_dms_me_prud.pdf: 25947550 bytes, checksum: d1ab98c54b2833831f9b756e4c1555ba (MD5) Previous issue date: 2021-03-31 Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) À partir de la pratique de l'archéologie préventive, l'identification des sites archéologiques en zones dégradées est chaque fois plus commune. Devant ces découvertes, le débat sur l'intégrité (la préservation, la destruction et le bouleversement) de ces sites archéologiques et leur importance sont souvent soulevés entre les chercheurs de l'archéologie. Cette étude de maîtrise présentée a eu comme but souligner les processus de postdêpot qui se sont produit au Site Archéologique d'Itaí, situé à l'ouest de l'État de Sao Paulo, à Paulicèia. En mettant en exergue le débat sur les processus caractéristiques en zones dégradées, prenant en considération, surtout, la culture de canne-sucre. Cette recherche est basée sur les éléments d'études de la Géoarchéologie définie par Butzer (1989): l'élément de paysage ; le contexte stratigraphique et son changement ; la formation du site archéologique ; et le changement du paysage. Pour attendre à ces objectifs, la méthodologie de cette recherche a été réalisée à partir des études géomorphologique proposées par Ab'Saber (1969), des rangs taxonomiques de Ross (1992) et la Théorie de la géomorphologie dynamique de Tricart (1977). Par conséquent, cette recherche s'est accompli à partir du cadre physique-environmentale du site archéologique et son histoire de développement, en reconnaissant les caractéristiques morphos dynamiques de la zone, par de travails de terrain et l'obtention des indications complémentaires, ce qui a permit la caractérisation du 5éme et 6éme Taxon, caractérisation de la structure superficielle du paysage, l'analyse spatiale, de la dispersion des matériaux archéologiques par des cartes de point et de chaleur et l'analyse temporelle du paysage par des images de satellite. En outre, on dialogue avec les études du Quartenaire pour la compréhension des cas de lignes de galets en zones où est situé le site archéologique et pour la contextualisation des phases d'occupation humaine pendant l'Holocène au contexte régional du Site Archéologique d'Itaí. Com a prática da arqueologia preventiva, a identificação de sítios arqueológicos em áreas degradadas é cada vez mais comum. Diante dessas descobertas, o debate sobre a integridade (preservação, destruição e perturbação) desses sítios arqueológicos e sua importância é suscitado frequentemente entre os pesquisadores da arqueologia. A presente pesquisa de mestrado buscou evidenciar os processos pós-deposicionais que ocorreram no Sítio Arqueológico Itaí, localizado no oeste do estado de São Paulo, no município de Paulicéia. Trazendo à luz ao debate os processos característicos em áreas degradadas, considerando sobretudo o cultivo de cana-de-açúcar. Esta pesquisa fundamentou-se nos componentes do estudo da Geoarqueologia definidos por Butzer (1989): componente paisagístico; contexto estratigráfico e sua modificação; formação do sítio arqueológico; e modificação da paisagem. Para tanto, a metodologia da pesquisa foi fundamentada pelos níveis de abordagem dos estudos geomorfológicos propostos por Ab’Saber (1969), na classificação taxonômica de Ross (1992) e na Teoria Ecodinâmica de Tricart (1977). Assim, esta pesquisa deu-se a partir da consideração do quadro físico-ambiental do sítio arqueológico e sua história evolutiva, reconhecendo as características morfodinâmicas da área, através de trabalhos de campo e obtenção de dados secundários, o que permitiu a caracterização do 5ºe 6º Táxon, caracterização da estrutura superficial da paisagem, análise espacial da dispersão dos materiais arqueológicos por mapas de pontos e de calor e análise temporal da paisagem por imagens de satélite. Além disso, dialogamos com os estudos do Quaternário para compreensão da ocorrência da linha de seixos na área onde está localizado o sítio arqueológico e para contextualização das fases de ocupações humanas durante o Holoceno no contexto regional do Sítio Arqueológico Itaí. The identification of archeological sites in degraded areas has become more common with the practice of preventive archeology. In the face of these discoveries, the debate about the integrity (preservation, destruction, and disturbance) of those archeological sites and their relevance are frequently raised in archeology studies. The present master's degree study aimed to highlight post-deposit processes that happened in Itaí Archeological Site, located in the west of the state of São Paulo, in Paulicéia. Bringing up the debate about characteristical processes in degraded areas considering mainly the cultivation of sugar cane. This study was underpinned by Butzer's (1989) Geoarchaeological studies components: landscape component; stratigraphic context and its changes; the archeological site's formation; and landscape modification. For this purpose, this research's methodology was founded on Ab'Saber's (1989) geomorphological studies approach, on Ross's (1992) taxonomic system, and Tricart's (1977) Ecodynamic Theory. Thus, this research was based on the environmental framework of the archeological site and its background, acknowledging the morphodynamics of the area through fieldwork and obtaining secondary data which allowed the description of the 5th and 6th taxon, the landscape superficial structure description, spacial analysis of the distribution of the archeologic materials by hotspots maps and temporal analysis of the landscape by satellite photos. Furthermore, we dialogued with the studies of the Quaternary to comprehend the occurrence of stone lines in the area where it's located the archeological site and to contextualize different periods of human activity during the Holocene, based on the regional context of the Itaí Archeological Site CNPq - 133138/2019-4.

The simulation/prediction of the environmental degradations of xenobiotics is an important field of research which allows to better understand the potential risks that represent organic contaminants in environmental systems. The main objective of this work is the implementation of hybrid couplings, associating an electrochemical device (EC) with analytical tools that are liquid chromatography (LC) and mass spectrometry MS [(EC-LC-MS and EC-MS couplings)] for simulation of the environmental degradation of selected electroactive pesticides. The oxidative degradation of this fungicide was studied using an electrochemical flow-through cell directly coupled to a mass spectrometer for rapid identification of their degradation products. Firstly, the elucidation of the electrochemical behavior of diuron (phenylurea herbicide) was possible through the identification of its oxidation products using EC-LCMS and EC-MS couplings. Secondly, the mimicry by electrochemistry of the environmental degradation of seven other herbicides (fenuron, monuron, isoproturon, chlortoluron, metoxuron, monolinuron, linuron) was implemented. The third part focused on the study of the electrochemical behavior/degradation of a fungicide of the carbamate family (carbendazim). In addition to the known transformation products for these studied pesticides, two new very unstable degradation products have been identified in this work for the first time, mainly quinones imine and nitrenium ions. All the results obtained during this study were supported by quantum mechanics calculations (DFT)., La simulation/prédiction des dégradations environnementales de xénobiotiques est un axe de recherche important qui permet de mieux comprendre les risques potentiels que représentent les contaminants organiques dans les systèmes environnementaux. L’objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est la mise en oeuvre des couplages hybrides associant un dispositif électrochimique (EC) avec les outils analytiques que sont la chromatographie liquide (CL) et la spectrométrie de masse (SM) [(couplages EC-CL-SM et EC-SM)] pour la simulation des dégradations dans l’environnement de quelques pesticides électroactifs. Le mécanisme de dégradation oxydative de ces pesticides a été étudié à l'aide d'une cellule électrochimique en flux directement couplée à un spectromètre de masse pour une identification rapide de leurs produits de dégradation. Dans un premier temps, l’élucidation du comportement électrochimique du diuron (herbicide phénylurées) a été possible au travers de l’identification de ses produits d’oxydation par l’utilisation des couplages EC-LC-SM et EC-SM. Dans un second temps, le mimétisme par électrochimie de la dégradation environnementale de sept autres herbicides (fénuron, monuron, isoproturon, chlortoluron, métoxuron, monolinuron, linuron) de la même famille que le diuron a été mise en oeuvre. La troisième partie a portée sur l'étude du comportement/dégradation électrochimique d'un fongicide de la famille des carbamates (carbendazime). En plus des produits de transformation connus pour ces pesticides étudiés, deux nouveaux produits de dégradation très instables ont été identifiés dans ce travail pour la première fois, principalement les quinones imine et les ions nitrenium. Tous les résultats obtenus au cours de cette étude ont été étayés par des calculs de mécanique quantique (DFT).

The impact of economic activities and increasing population on the environment raise profound interrogations towards the future of human societies and environmental resources. In this, the "Limits to Growth" (Meadows, Meadows, Behrens and Randers, 1974) warn human societies about the possibility of social collapse if current trends of exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation remain unchanged. The wealth of nature being essential to the wealth of nations, this thesis in economics through four theoretical and empirical contributions addresses the possibility of a peaceful cohabitation between human and nature and discusses conservation policies of nature. Our theoretical and empirical results show on the one hand that human habitat is being expanded to the detriment of other biological species (animal and plant). On the other hand, we show that current efforts to conserve biological species are strongly oriented towards forests whose richness in biodiversity is doubtful. Finally, we show that an increasingly growing consumption of primary energies, therefore with strong ecological impacts, is still to be expected from developing countries. In terms of environmental policies, our work advocates for a reduction of the ecological footprint of human societies. This includes policies promoting forest regeneration and not the reduction of covered areas, expansion of protected areas, especially in developing countries and incentives for individuals to orient preferences towards the demand for goods with low ecological impacts.; L'impact de l'activité économique et de l'augmentation de la population sur l'environnement soulève de profondes questions sur l'avenir des sociétés humaines et des ressources environnementales. En ceci, les "Limites de la Croissance" ("Limits to Growth", Meadows, Meadows, Behrens et Randers, 1974) mettent en garde les sociétés humaines contre la possibilité d'un effondrement social si les tendances actuelles d'exploitation de ressources naturelles et de dégradation de l'environnement suivent leur court. La richesse de la nature étant primordiale à la richesse des nations, cette thèse en sciences économiques au travers de quatre contributions théoriques et empiriques traite de la possibilité d'une cohabitation pacifique des sociétés humaines avec la nature et discute des politiques de conservation de la nature. Nos résultats théoriques et empiriques montrent d'une part que l'expansion de l'habitat humain se fait au détriment des autres espèces biologiques (animales et végétales). D'autre part, nous montrons que les efforts actuels de conservation des espèces biologiques sont fortement orientés vers des forets dont la richesse en biodiversité s'avère douteuse. Finalement, nous montrons qu'une utilisation de plus en plus croissante des énergies primaires, donc à forts impacts écologiques, est encore à attendre des pays en développement. En termes de politiques environnementales, nos travaux appellent davantage à la réduction de l'empreinte écologique des sociétés humaines. Ceci inclut : Une exploitation favorisant la régénération des forêts et non la réduction des aires déjà couvertes ; L'élargissement des aires protégées surtout dans les pays en développement ; Une incitation des individus à orienter les préférences vers la demande de biens à faibles empreintes écologiques.

The impact of economic activities and increasing population on the environment raise profound interrogations towards the future of human societies and environmental resources. In this, the "Limits to Growth" (Meadows, Meadows, Behrens and Randers, 1974) warn human societies about the possibility of social collapse if current trends of exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation remain unchanged. The wealth of nature being essential to the wealth of nations, this thesis in economics through four theoretical and empirical contributions addresses the possibility of a peaceful cohabitation between human and nature and discusses conservation policies of nature. Our theoretical and empirical results show on the one hand that human habitat is being expanded to the detriment of other biological species (animal and plant). On the other hand, we show that current efforts to conserve biological species are strongly oriented towards forests whose richness in biodiversity is doubtful. Finally, we show that an increasingly growing consumption of primary energies, therefore with strong ecological impacts, is still to be expected from developing countries. In terms of environmental policies, our work advocates for a reduction of the ecological footprint of human societies. This includes policies promoting forest regeneration and not the reduction of covered areas, expansion of protected areas, especially in developing countries and incentives for individuals to orient preferences towards the demand for goods with low ecological impacts.; L'impact de l'activité économique et de l'augmentation de la population sur l'environnement soulève de profondes questions sur l'avenir des sociétés humaines et des ressources environnementales. En ceci, les "Limites de la Croissance" ("Limits to Growth", Meadows, Meadows, Behrens et Randers, 1974) mettent en garde les sociétés humaines contre la possibilité d'un effondrement social si les tendances actuelles d'exploitation de ressources naturelles et de dégradation de l'environnement suivent leur court. La richesse de la nature étant primordiale à la richesse des nations, cette thèse en sciences économiques au travers de quatre contributions théoriques et empiriques traite de la possibilité d'une cohabitation pacifique des sociétés humaines avec la nature et discute des politiques de conservation de la nature. Nos résultats théoriques et empiriques montrent d'une part que l'expansion de l'habitat humain se fait au détriment des autres espèces biologiques (animales et végétales). D'autre part, nous montrons que les efforts actuels de conservation des espèces biologiques sont fortement orientés vers des forets dont la richesse en biodiversité s'avère douteuse. Finalement, nous montrons qu'une utilisation de plus en plus croissante des énergies primaires, donc à forts impacts écologiques, est encore à attendre des pays en développement. En termes de politiques environnementales, nos travaux appellent davantage à la réduction de l'empreinte écologique des sociétés humaines. Ceci inclut : Une exploitation favorisant la régénération des forêts et non la réduction des aires déjà couvertes ; L'élargissement des aires protégées surtout dans les pays en développement ; Une incitation des individus à orienter les préférences vers la demande de biens à faibles empreintes écologiques.

Since its independence, the construction of the Lebanese State and the enforcement of its sovereignty have faced continuous challenges if not long-lasting disruptions. This culminated during the Civil War between 1975 and 1990, as internal forces, supplemented by foreign interventions, almost totally sidelined the State. The way the State has mapped its territory and the various steps of this endeavor reflect these difficulties. Territorial divisions and state control over the Lebanese territ...

Economic domination At the beginning of the 2010s, women accounted for 25% of the labor force nationwide. Most of these women (59.8% of them) have been working in Beirut or in Mount-Lebanon, regions which concentrate 44.5% of the Lebanese workers. As a minority on the labor market, the employed women are mostly young and often single: marriage, which occurs quite late in Lebanon, remains a major step in their biographical path and often corresponds to the end of paid activities. The professio...

Waiting for the beginning of the exploitation of the potential oil and mostly gas deposits in its exclusive economic zone, Lebanon remains heavily dependent on imported hydrocarbons, which account for 95% of its primary energy. Its potential renewable energy production is limited and under-exploited, including hydroelectricity and, despite its recent rise, solar energy. The exploitation of wind energy is still in the planning phase. A constant and strong increase in consumption, which generat...

On the western edge of the Fertile Crescent, the land of Lebanon has for centuries been a crossroad and an interface between the West and the Near East and beyond. Open to many influences, the Lebanese society has developed demographic and economic specificities that have stimulated services and secured a major regional position for the country (finance, media, advertising, tourism) until the 1970s. However, its former attractive features have lastingly been jeopardized by its loss of competi...

Since the independence, the Lebanese authorities have regularly called upon the unity of all citizens behind their water resources. The discourse of the Ministry of Energy and Water, which subtitled the National Water Sector Strategy: “A right for every citizen, a resource for the whole country”, testifies to this. Yet, signs of conflict frequently appear. The implementation of large-scale hydraulic projects triggered major disputes between local communities, environmental associations and th...

The 2006 war against Israel and the fights that occurred in Nahr el-Bared in 2007 against the radical Islamist group Fatah al-Islam caused major damages. The reconstruction of these areas differs from the post-Civil War reconstruction. They reveal new uneven power relations, which may explain the contrasted evolution of these projects. These projects stand out from the 1990s reconstruction because of the involvement of new actors and the withdrawal of the central State for which the inhabitan...

Floods frequently occur in Lebanon during the rainy season, usually between December and March after particularly heavy storms or at the beginning of snowmelt. Rivers overflow causing major damages, which are estimated to amount to 15 million US$ per year. These events are more and more studied and seem mostly related to anthropogenic factors, including uncontrolled urban sprawl. An increasingly frequent phenomenon? There has never been a systematic recording over time of floods in Lebanon, w...

When one examines climate change, it is clear that Lebanon has been experiencing significant but contrasted trends. An increase in average temperature has been recorded on the national scale as well as in some urban areas such as Beirut. The average rainfall does not seem to decline but torrential rains have become more and more frequent. These phenomena contribute to increased hazards and risks, which have already been documented across the country, and have reached high levels over the past...

Whether one looks at access to housing, employment, or schooling, the integration of Syrian refugees is precarious and leads to massive impoverishment, even though there is every indication that their presence in Lebanon is going to last. The Lebanese government has toughened its originally generous policies, as the impact on the Lebanese society has become heavier. International aid has been considerable but tends to wane, leaving the future shrouded in uncertainty. Employment and education ...

The arrival of more than 1 million Syrian refugees in Lebanon constitutes a demographic, economic and social upheaval for Lebanon. Two thirds of them have settled in the North and the Bekaa Valley. Forming a younger population, refugees outgrow the resident population in many localities. They live in very precarious conditions, even though only 20% of them settle in camps. A spatial and demographic upheaval Upon request from the Lebanese government, the UNHCR has suspended new registration si...

A significant presence of women in public spaces, rising mobility and apparent liberal social mores in some sections of society may lead one to believe that the situation of women is better in Lebanon than in other countries in the region. However, in terms of gender equality, Lebanon has been ranked 123rd among 136 countries examined by the World Economic Forum. Aware of this ranking, numerous associations defend the rights of women and sexual minorities. They try to obtain improvements in a...

Since the end of the Civil War, many projects have been launched in order to improve access to water for the population as well as for agricultural activities while making the management of these services more efficient. However, for now, few concrete results have been observed and the attempts at reforming the sector, which have been conducted under the pressure of international funding agencies, have only rarely led to a real improvement of the service. An unfinished reform During the 2000s...

Violent episodes and wars rooted in regional geopolitics have marked Lebanon’s recent history and have had lasting effects on its population and territory. The successive and concomitant interventions of several foreign countries had a major impact on the Civil War, the various conflicts and alliances involving Lebanese groups. More recently, and on a different time and spatial scale, the war with Israel in 2006 had dramatic consequences. The Civil War: internal tensions and foreign intervent...

The lack of meteorological records makes the study of the climatic trends experienced by Lebanon in the medium and long term extremely difficult. The measures dating back to before the 1950s are rare and many stations stopped working or were damaged during the Civil War. The impact of climate change, which has become a major environmental issue worldwide, is thus hard to determine. However, existing data series reveal several climatic trends, certainly partly intertwined and linked to regiona...

There is no reliable source on the number of Lebanese living outside the country, a phenomenon which is hard to grasp as it encompasses various situations: Lebanese citizens permanently residing abroad, descendants of Lebanese families who do not have the citizenship but maintain links with the country, migrants coming back for long periods of time every year, etc. Estimates vary widely but a figure of 3 to 4 million Lebanese abroad is often cited. A numerous group disseminated across the wor...

As we are concluding this work, we cannot escape addressing the paradox this book embodies. In most contexts, preparing an atlas, understood as a reasoned mapping of a country, happens in moments of State’s affirmation. Atlases are indeed symbols of sovereignty through the mapped exhibition of national borders and territorial State’s actions. Their realization itself is conditioned by the possibility of access to informational resources, the production of which results from processes of contr...

Highly impoverished and weakened by the Civil War, the Lebanese population could have hoped for improvement after the conflict ended. However, 25 years later, this long-awaited improvement is still to come for a majority of residents. Overall, social inequality has increased and poverty has spread, especially in the peripheral regions. Groups with a medium standard of living have seen their demographic and economic importance decline. Growing wealth inequality, overall impoverishment and incr...

The concept of “buffer state” developed by George Corm perfectly fits Lebanon, with which all the conflicts taking place in the area resonate. In a system structured by institutionalized communitarianism, decisions made in the political sphere are very much shaped by the regional power relationships and the interventions of both regional and external patrons (Iran, Saudi Arabia, Syria, USA, Russia). Lebanon at the heart of regional tensions Figure I-13: Lebanon and the geopolitics of the regi...

As urbanization has been spreading across the country, rural and natural areas have increasingly been under pressure. Characterized by the presence of forest land and agricultural terraces attached to its impressive slopes, the central region of Mount Lebanon and Beirut, nowadays inhabited by nearly 2.5 million residents, refugees included, has become more and more urbanized. Dense urbanization has come along with the urbanization of rural areas, through the growth of villages, along the road...

After fifteen rather peaceful years, devoted to its economic reconstruction in the shadow of the Syrian tutelage, the country has entered a new cycle of violence in 2005. Militias and armed groups have reappeared in broad daylight in territories they have taken control of. Standing at the ready, the Lebanese Army has been struggling to step in while remaining the last symbol of national unity. The resurgence of political violence Since 2005 and the assassination of the former President of the...

After fifteen years of reconstruction in a relatively peaceful environment spanning the years 1990 to 2004, Lebanon has experienced successive violent political events resulting from complex entangled internal and external struggles. The Syrian crisis and its political, economic and demographic consequences on Lebanon have increased these tensions. This atlas sheds light on these new challenges and adds new data that complete the analyses already published in the Atlas du Liban. Territoires et société (Atlas of Lebanon. Territories and Society) released in 2007 by the same research team. Some of its components are included in this edition. Beyond the international regional crisis and the population movements, it takes into account Lebanon’s socio-economic dimensions, the environmental issues linked to uncontrolled urbanization and to natural risks, as well as conflicts due to local territorial management. This atlas is the result of a collaborative endeavor between French and Lebanese researchers. It uses a geographical approach that puts in the foreground a spatial analysis of social and natural phenomena. Public sources are scarce in Lebanon, especially at the local scale. They are sometimes less reliable and difficult to access. It is particularly the case for the Lebanese census data, conversely data are abundantly available on the refugees population, which is less known than the population of refugees. International data help compare Lebanon to its neighbors. Thematic data produced by some ministries are helpful to provide a detailed view regarding specific domains. Analyses processed on aerial and satellite images have produced essential data on urbanization and environment. Local thematic fieldwork surveys have provided additional data. The book consists of seven chapters. The first one deals with the territorial state-building seen in the light of regional geopolitics, and emphasizes internal violence and the reemergence of militias and armed groups that fight each other and the state army. Lebanon is once again perceived as a territory divided between multiple allegiances. The second chapter is devoted to the analysis of population dynamics, despite the lack of reliable data whose sources are subject to discussion. It includes analyses of internal population flows, the Lebanese diaspora, and the assessment of Syrian refugees’ influx. The third chapter shows the fragility of the Lebanese economic model. Its dependency on foreign investments and on the remittances of the diaspora, as well as the deadlocks of industry and agriculture, which aggravate social imbalances. The fourth chapter is an assessment of urbanization in the country, which has increased by 80% in surface in twenty years at the expense of natural spaces and agriculture. The shore is highly coveted and widely artificialized and damaged. Multiple signs of environmental degradation are examined in chapter five. They seem to announce the global climate change and its local effects. In addition to that, there is a direct link between massive urbanization and many risks, measured and mapped in an increasingly detailed way. Chapter six tackles the dysfunctional public services that exploit natural resources: water and energy supply, both marked by massive shortages, and the management of solid waste hit by a serious crisis. The seventh and last chapter studies the mutations of the local territorial management, which is marked by the retreat of the state, if not its marginalization, and the rise of other actors, notably municipalities, local powers and also civil society organizations.After fifteen years of reconstruction in a relatively peaceful environment spanning the years 1990 to 2004, Lebanon has experienced successive violent political events resulting from complex entangled internal and external struggles. The Syrian crisis and its political, economic and demographic consequences on Lebanon have increased these tensions. This atlas sheds light on these new challenges and adds new data that complete the analyses already published in the Atlas du Liban. Territoires et société (Atlas of Lebanon. Territories and Society) released in 2007 by the same research team. Some of its components are included in this edition. Beyond the international regional crisis and the population movements, it takes into account Lebanon’s socio-economic dimensions, the environmental issues linked to uncontrolled urbanization and to natural risks, as well as conflicts due to local territorial management. This atlas is the result of a collaborative endeavor between French and Lebanese researchers. It uses a geographical approach that puts in the foreground a spatial analysis of social and natural phenomena. Public sources are scarce in Lebanon, especially at the local scale. They are sometimes less reliable and difficult to access. It is particularly the case for the Lebanese census data, conversely data are abundantly available on the refugees population, which is less known than the population of refugees. International data help compare Lebanon to its neighbors. Thematic data produced by some ministries are helpful to provide a detailed view regarding specific domains. Analyses processed on aerial and satellite images have produced essential data on urbanization and environment. Local thematic fieldwork surveys have provided additional data. The book consists of seven chapters. The first one deals with the territorial state-building seen in the light of regional geopolitics, and emphasizes internal violence and the reemergence of militias and armed groups that fight each other and the state army. Lebanon is once again perceived as a territory divided between multiple allegiances. The second chapter is devoted to the analysis of population dynamics, despite the lack of reliable data whose sources are subject to discussion. It includes analyses of internal population flows, the Lebanese diaspora, and the assessment of Syrian refugees’ influx. The third chapter shows the fragility of the Lebanese economic model. Its dependency on foreign investments and on the remittances of the diaspora, as well as the deadlocks of industry and agriculture, which aggravate social imbalances. The fourth chapter is an assessment of urbanization in the country, which has increased by 80% in surface in twenty years at the expense of natural spaces and agriculture. The shore is highly coveted and widely artificialized and damaged. Multiple signs of environmental degradation are examined in chapter five. They seem to announce the global climate change and its local effects. In addition to that, there is a direct link between massive urbanization and many risks, measured and mapped in an increasingly detailed way. Chapter six tackles the dysfunctional public services that exploit natural resources: water and energy supply, both marked by massive shortages, and the management of solid waste hit by a serious crisis. The seventh and last chapter studies the mutations of the local territorial management, which is marked by the retreat of the state, if not its marginalization, and the rise of other actors, notably municipalities, local powers and also civil society organizations. Après une quinzaine d’années de reconstruction dans un climat de paix relative, de 1990 à 2004, le Liban a connu depuis 2005 une succession d’épisodes politiques violents mêlant de manière complexe enjeux internes et tensions régionales. Le déclenchement de la crise syrienne et ses retombées politiques, économiques et démographiques sur le Liban accentue cet état de fait. Cet ouvrage met en lumière ces nouveaux défis et complète en intégrant des volets différents l’analyse des transformations libanaises déjà entreprises dans l’Atlas du Liban. Territoires et société publié en 2007 par la même équipe (dont quelques éléments sont toutefois repris ici). Outre la crise internationale et les mouvements de population, il prend en compte les dimensions socio-économiques à l’intérieur du Liban, les problématiques environnementales liées à l’urbanisation incontrôlée et aux risques, ainsi que la gestion territoriale et les conflits locaux qu’elle suscite. Cet atlas est le fruit d’une collaboration entre des chercheurs et universitaires français et libanais. Il utilise une approche géographique, plaçant au premier plan de l’analyse la spatialisation des faits sociaux et naturels. Les sources publiques sont limitées, notamment du point de vue de la finesse géographique, parfois peu fiables et difficiles d’accès. C’est particulièrement vrai pour les données sur la population libanaise, moins bien connue que la population réfugiée. Les données internationales permettent de situer le Liban par rapport à ses voisins. Des données thématiques, issues des ministères, offrent néanmoins une vision détaillée pour certains domaines. L’analyse d’images aériennes et de satellites fournit des données essentielles sur l’urbanisation et l’environnement. Des enquêtes de terrain localisées et thématiques complètent la panoplie des informations utilisées. L’ouvrage comprend sept chapitres. Le premier porte sur l’histoire de la construction territoriale libanaise, replacée dans la géopolitique régionale, et insiste sur les violences politiques internes et la réémergence au grand jour des milices et groupes armés en conflit entre eux et avec l’armée libanaise. Le Liban apparaît de nouveau comme un territoire fragmenté entre de multiples allégeances. Le deuxième chapitre s’attache à décrire la situation démographique malgré l’extrême rareté et la manque de fiabilité des données, dont les sources sont discutées. Il décrit ensuite les flux de population interne au Liban, propose une analyse de la diaspora puis se concentre sur l’installation des réfugiés syriens dans le pays. Le troisième chapitre montre la fragilité du modèle économique libanais. Sa dépendance aux investissements extérieurs et aux remises de la diaspora, les blocages de l’industrie et de l’agriculture aggravent les déséquilibres sociaux. Le quatrième chapitre est un bilan de l’urbanisation du pays, qui s’est accrue en superficie de 80% en vingt ans, au détriment des espaces naturels et de l’agriculture. Le littoral, objet d’intenses convoitises, est largement artificialisé et dégradé. De multiples signes de mutations et de dégradation de l’environnement sont observables sur le territoire libanais et sont l’objet du cinquième chapitre. Certains semblent annonciateurs du changement climatique global et de ses effets locaux. En outre, il existe un lien direct entre l’urbanisation massive et de nombreux risques mesurés et cartographiés de plus en plus clairement. Le chapitre six se concentre sur les dysfonctionnements de quelques services publics en lien avec l’exploitation des ressources naturelles : l’approvisionnement en eau, en énergie, tous deux marqués par la pénurie, et la gestion des déchets solides, qui traverse une crise profonde. Le septième et dernier chapitre étudie les mutations dans la gestion du territoire libanais, marqué par le retrait voire la marginalisation de l’État et l’affirmation d’autres acteurs agissant sur le territoire, notamment les municipalités, les pouvoirs locaux mais aussi des associations de la société civile.Après une quinzaine d’années de reconstruction dans un climat de paix relative, de 1990 à 2004, le Liban a connu depuis 2005 une succession d’épisodes politiques violents mêlant de manière complexe enjeux internes et tensions régionales. Le déclenchement de la crise syrienne et ses retombées politiques, économiques et démographiques sur le Liban accentue cet état de fait. Cet ouvrage met en lumière ces nouveaux défis et complète en intégrant des volets différents l’analyse des transformations libanaises déjà entreprises dans l’Atlas du Liban. Territoires et société publié en 2007 par la même équipe (dont quelques éléments sont toutefois repris ici). Outre la crise internationale et les mouvements de population, il prend en compte les dimensions socio-économiques à l’intérieur du Liban, les problématiques environnementales liées à l’urbanisation incontrôlée et aux risques, ainsi que la gestion territoriale et les conflits locaux qu’elle suscite. Cet atlas est le fruit d’une collaboration entre des chercheurs et universitaires français et libanais. Il utilise une approche géographique, plaçant au premier plan de l’analyse la spatialisation des faits sociaux et naturels. Les sources publiques sont limitées, notamment du point de vue de la finesse géographique, parfois peu fiables et difficiles d’accès. C’est particulièrement vrai pour les données sur la population libanaise, moins bien connue que la population réfugiée. Les données internationales permettent de situer le Liban par rapport à ses voisins. Des données thématiques, issues des ministères, offrent néanmoins une vision détaillée pour certains domaines. L’analyse d’images aériennes et de satellites fournit des données essentielles sur l’urbanisation et l’environnement. Des enquêtes de terrain localisées et thématiques complètent la panoplie des informations utilisées. L’ouvrage comprend sept chapitres. Le premier porte sur l’histoire de la construction territoriale libanaise, replacée dans la géopolitique régionale, et insiste sur les violences politiques internes et la réémergence au grand jour des milices et groupes armés en conflit entre eux et avec l’armée libanaise. Le Liban apparaît de nouveau comme un territoire fragmenté entre de multiples allégeances. Le deuxième chapitre s’attache à décrire la situation démographique malgré l’extrême rareté et la manque de fiabilité des données, dont les sources sont discutées. Il décrit ensuite les flux de population interne au Liban, propose une analyse de la diaspora puis se concentre sur l’installation des réfugiés syriens dans le pays. Le troisième chapitre montre la fragilité du modèle économique libanais. Sa dépendance aux investissements extérieurs et aux remises de la diaspora, les blocages de l’industrie et de l’agriculture aggravent les déséquilibres sociaux. Le quatrième chapitre est un bilan de l’urbanisation du pays, qui s’est accrue en superficie de 80% en vingt ans, au détriment des espaces naturels et de l’agriculture. Le littoral, objet d’intenses convoitises, est largement artificialisé et dégradé. De multiples signes de mutations et de dégradation de l’environnement sont observables sur le territoire libanais et sont l’objet du cinquième chapitre. Certains semblent annonciateurs du changement climatique global et de ses effets locaux. En outre, il existe un lien direct entre l’urbanisation massive et de nombreux risques mesurés et cartographiés de plus en plus clairement. Le chapitre six se concentre sur les dysfonctionnements de quelques services publics en lien avec l’exploitation des ressources naturelles : l’approvisionnement en eau, en énergie, tous deux marqués par la pénurie, et la gestion des déchets solides, qui traverse une crise profonde. Le septième et dernier chapitre étudie les mutations dans la gestion du territoire libanais, marqué par le retrait voire la marginalisation de l’État et l’affirmation d’autres acteurs agissant sur le territoire, notamment les municipalités, les pouvoirs locaux mais aussi des associations de la société civile.

Lebanon is a country oriented toward commerce, including through its diaspora. However, it is marked by a highly negative balance of trade, even if the deficit has been decreasing over the past 15 years. The war in Syria has jeopardized this commercial dynamism. The hypertrophy of the Beirut hub On a national scale, the most striking feature linked to foreign trade is the extreme predominance of Beirut compared to other points of access to the Lebanese territory. As of now, 85% of the importe...

Lebanon is a country characterized by a low to moderate seismicity and the presence of major faults which have generated devastating historic earthquakes. Several factors have turned Lebanon into one of the most exposed Mediterranean countries when it comes to seismic risks: extremely marked urbanization on the coastal strip, including in Beirut where more than 40% of the Lebanese population lives and where most of the economic, political and administrative activities are concentrated, and an...

Lebanon is heavily dependent on international aid, which has more and more invested in local development, through multiple actors, channels and categories of intervention (decentralized cooperation, development aid, emergency aid…). This diversity shows the competition and the complementarity between donors in a country they deem strategic. Many Lebanese municipalities maintain relationships with local entities located across the five continents. Often formal and quite old, they reflect the g...

Over the last thirty years, from the end of the Civil War to the turmoil following the assassination of Rafiq Hariri, the Israeli war against Hezbollah, and the consequences of the war in Syria, Lebanon has regularly made the headlines, either for being at the heart of conflicts or due to the fact it is always connected to international and Middle Eastern geopolitics, both painfully impacting its people. The recent and ongoing garbage crisis in Beirut and its suburbs, and the popular mobiliza...

Over the past decade, Lebanon has once again faced major challenges in terms of urban and land-use planning, while the governance in this sector has radically evolved compared to what it was during the previous period. These changes are noticeable on three different levels. First, the central State has lost its status as the main, even unique, actor, as much when it comes to regulation as to implementation. Despite the National Physical Master Plan for Lebanon, published in 2004, the politica...

Since 1998, the year of the first municipal elections after a 33-year-long break, municipalities have imposed themselves as essential actors in local development despite burdensome administrative and financial restrictions demanded by the central State. Many of them have found ways to bypass these limitations and have improved their population’s living environment and access to services. The 1,113 Lebanese municipalities strongly differ from one another in terms of size, resources and dynamis...

The decline of centralized State action results in a profusion of local development projects. However, the competition between various actors sometimes leads to an uncoordinated juxtaposition of projects as well as inertia. The cases of Bourj Hammoud and the controversial projects for the International Tripoli Fair illustrate this type of situation. An urban patchwork: Bourj Hammoud At the heart of Beirut, the municipality of Bourj Hammoud has been subject to many large-scale projects for the...

From the 16th to the 20th century, the regions composing what has now become Lebanon lived under the authority of the Ottoman Empire. Pashas and emirs ruled their constituencies with various and changing levels of autonomy, but all paid taxes to the Sublime Gate. Inside the Ottoman territory, circulation was fluid and administrative divisions shifted frequently. In the aftermath of the First World War, upheavals and the gradual formation of new states superimposed borders on the region and tr...

Urbanization, which can only be grasped in Lebanon by using satellite imagery because of a lack of recent statistical data, has almost doubled over the past 20 years. It is concentrated in the central region, but the growth of urban areas has also been significant in the peripheral areas, often in low-density forms, along transport corridors, as observed in the North of the country, from Tripoli to Halba. The analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery constitutes the most appropriate sourc...

The issue of water shortage in Lebanon also has to be tackled in terms of water quality. The absence of wastewater treatment represents a serious sanitary risk to a population that does not always have access to drinking water. In a context where water public services are deficient, access to drinking and domestic water is a clear indicator of social and spatial inequality in the Lebanese society. The degradation of water resources The almost complete absence of wastewater treatment facilitie...

The Civil War and its consequences have had a major impact on the contemporary spatial transformations experienced by Lebanon. The State has played a significant role, especially in the reconstruction efforts, but one has to keep in mind the diversity of the actors involved and of the interests they represent. The Chehabist legacy Between the independence and the beginning of the Civil War, the State launched a series of initiatives in the field of regional planning and infrastructure. The be...

Water in Lebanon is strongly linked to identity issues. The contrast between its green mountains and the aridity of the Syrian plains has indeed allowed it to affirm its specificity in the Near-East region. In the period of post-independence nation-building, Lebanon was proclaimed a “gift from the Litani” and its watery mountains the “skeleton of the Lebanese unity”. However, this abundance is nowadays threatened by an increase in needs, especially domestic and agricultural ones. Only drastic...

Municipal unions have come to represent a new level of action and governance. They mobilize both local actors concerned with a more efficient local development, and community-based political parties seeking to reinforce their territorial reach. They also experiment with new tools aimed at strengthening planning and decision-making capacities, such as urban observatories and strategic planning. The first municipal unions appeared during the war, following the 1977 law which authorized their cr...

Several types of risks have been under growing scrutiny in Lebanon, among others because the on-going climatic trends could greatly increase their number and scale. Torrential rains may thus lead to an increase in the number and impact of the floods and mass movements which already affect the country, while a rise in temperatures and drought episodes are strongly associated with an increase in the number and scale of forest fires. From forest to suburban fires? Between 1960 and 2010, 35% of t...

The Taif Agreement (1989) reformed the political system by introducing a new power balance, implemented during the 1990s in the shadow of the Syrian presence. However, since 2005, regional tensions and their internal ripple effect have repeatedly blocked the decision-making process. As a result, the presidential and parliamentary elections have experienced several delays. The ensuing political vacuum has aggravated the shortcomings of the system, marked by sectarian and clanic dimensions and ...

A small country, Lebanon is characterized by a service-based economy and a level of human development that positions it between the southeastern parts of Europe and the other Near-Eastern countries. It is strongly dependent on the Arab Gulf countries, to where it exports its qualified workforce and from where it receives financial flows and investments that keep its economy running, especially its financial and banking sectors, coupled with real estate and tourism. Its balance of trade is dis...

The Directorate General for Urban Planning (DGU) and the Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR) have long been the main official actors in the field of urban and land-use planning in Lebanon. However, over the past decade, these two institutions have been facing serious challenges, which they have struggled to handle, and they have had to adapt their practices. Towards negotiated planning initiatives Master plans have historically been the main tool used for territorial planning. To...

Distinctly service-oriented, the Lebanese economy is characterized by a limited production of tradable commodities despite several potential competitive advantages (location, geographic diversity, high level of education, low labor costs, powerful diaspora, etc.), which could boost the international competitiveness of its companies. The regional and national instability, the failures of public infrastructure (power supply, water, etc.), as well as a clear preference for speculative investment...

Since the end of the war, the Lebanese economy has been increasingly marked by the importance of rents, supported by consumerism, external subsidies and capital flows. The country’s economic policy being focused on reconstruction and macroeconomic stabilization, these assets have been invested in short-term banking deposit, as well as in land and real estate, thus fueling consumption and contributing to the upsurge in land prices. After a short period of recession between 1998 and 2000, the r...

Of all the uncertainties surrounding statistics in Lebanon, the one related to the Lebanese population is certainly one of the most sensitive and challenging. While no census has been conducted since 1932, the civil registry is usually kept in the locality of origin, not in the individuals’ current place of residency, be it in Lebanon or abroad. The last Census of Buildings, Dwellings and Establishments dates from 2004. Other surveys were then conducted in 2007 and 2009 and enabled the Centra...

The lack of reliable and extensive data about population in Lebanon is a challenge for social sciences. It forces the researchers to rely on estimates that harden time comparison and geographical analysis. For a century, rural population has flocked to the main urban areas, mostly located on the coast, emptying many rural and mountainous regions from their blood. The war-induced population displacements during the Civil War somehow prolonged this exodus and led to sectarian homogenization in ...

Service-related activities compose 70% of Lebanon’s GDP. Old and renowned, the banking and financial activities yet only accounted for 8% of the GDP (4.4 billion US$) in 2013, i.e. less than half of the amount of trade activities and less than the industrial production. In early 2015, they included 70 banking establishments (including 16 merchant ones), 10 representative offices of foreign banks, 53 financial establishments, 324 currency exchange offices and 40 credit institutions. The financ...