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Some ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are said to demonstrate a dose-related risk of atrial fibrillation (AF), conversely, some ω6 PUFAs might have AF protective potential. However, few investigated the relation among ischemic strokes. Primarily, we aimed to examine a relation between ω3 and ω6 PUFAs and the presence of AF in ischemic strokes. Further, since, some PUFAs are said to affect the cardiac load, we secondarily aimed to investigate the association between ω3 and ω6 PUFAs and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and the occurrence of cerebral large vessel occlusion (LVO) in ischemic strokes with AF. Consecutive patients with ischemic stroke admitted between 2012 and 2022 were retrospectively screened. Plasma levels of PUFAs, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid (AA), were assayed. Data were analyzed using a Poisson regression analysis with a robust variance estimator and a multiple linear regression analysis. We screened 2112 consecutive ischemic strokes, including 1574 (1119 [71%] males, median age 69 years). Lower DGLA (prevalence ratio (PR) 0.885, 95% CI 0.811–0.966, p = 0.006), lower AA (PR 0.797, 95% CI 0.649–0.978, p = 0.030), and higher EPA/AA ratio (PR 1.353, 95% CI 1.036–1.767, p = 0.026) were associated with AF. Checking the linearity between AF and PUFAs, negative linear trends were observed between DGLA quartiles (Q1: PR 1.901, Q2: PR 1.550, Q3: PR 1.423, Q4: 1.000, p < 0.001 for trend) and AA quartiles (Q1: PR 1.499, Q2: PR 1.204, Q3: PR 1.125, Q4: 1.000, p = 0.004 for trend), with positive linear trends between EPA/AA ratio quartiles (Q1: 1.000, Q2: PR 1.555, Q3: PR 1.612, Q4: PR 1.797, p = 0.001 for trend). Among patients with AF, a negative association between AA and BNP (unstandardized coefficient −1.316, 95% CI -2.290∼-0.342, p = 0.008) was observed, and lower AA was associated with LVO (PR 0.707, 95% CI 0.527–0.950, p = 0.021). Lower DGLA and AA and a higher EPA/AA ratio might be related to the development of AF in ischemic strokes. Further, AA might have a cardio-cerebrovascular protective role in ischemic strokes with AF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acid desaturase 1 (FADS1) is a rate-limiting enzyme in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) synthesis. Reduced activity of FADS1 was observed in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). The aim of this study was to determine whether adeno-associated virus serotype 8 (AAV8) mediated hepatocyte-specific overexpression of Fads1 (AAV8-Fads1) attenuates western diet-induced metabolic phenotypes in a rat model. Male weanling Sprague-Dawley rats were fed with a chow diet, or low-fat high-fructose (LFHFr) or high-fat high-fructose diet (HFHFr) ad libitum for 8 weeks. Metabolic phenotypes were evaluated at the endpoint. AAV8-Fads1 injection restored hepatic FADS1 protein levels in both LFHFr and HFHFr-fed rats. While AAV8-Fads1 injection led to improved glucose tolerance and insulin signaling in LFHFr-fed rats, it significantly reduced plasma triglyceride (by ~50%) and hepatic cholesterol levels (by ~25%) in HFHFr-fed rats. Hepatic lipidomics analysis showed that FADS1 activity was rescued by AAV8-FADS1 in HFHFr-fed rats, as shown by the restored arachidonic acid (AA)/dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) ratio, and that was associated with reduced monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA). Our data suggest that the beneficial role of AAV8-Fads1 is likely mediated by the inhibition of fatty acid re-esterification. FADS1 is a promising therapeutic target for MASLD in a diet-dependent manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Significant associations have been reported between serum total nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations and coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality and incident nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI) in some prospective cohort studies. Little is known about whether individual or subclasses (saturated, polyunsaturated [n-6 and n-3], and trans fatty acids) of serum NEFAs relate to CHD mortality and nonfatal MI. Methods and Results CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study) participants (N=1681) who had no history of MI, angina, or revascularization or were free of MI at baseline (1996-1997) were included. NEFAs were quantified using gas chromatography. Cox regression analysis was used to evaluate associations of 5 subclasses and individual NEFAs with CHD composite (CHD mortality and nonfatal MI), CHD mortality, and incident nonfatal MI. During a median follow-up of 11.7 years, 266 cases of CHD death and 271 cases of nonfatal MI occurred. In the fully adjusted model, no significant associations were identified between individual NEFA and CHD composite. Exploratory analyses indicated that lauric acid (12:0) was negatively associated (hazard ratio [HR], 0.76; 95% CI, 0.59-0.98; P=0.0328) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (20:3n-6) was positively associated with CHD mortality (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.02-1.76; P=0.0351). Elaidic acid (18:1n-7t) was positively associated with incident nonfatal MI (HR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.01-2.12; P=0.0445). No significant associations were observed for NEFA subclass and any outcomes. Conclusions In CHS participants, 2 NEFAs, dihomo-γ-linolenic and elaidic acids, were positively associated with CHD mortality and nonfatal MI, respectively, suggesting potential susceptibility biomarkers for risks of CHD mortality and nonfatal MI.

Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) is an n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid that has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects in mice and cell study. To date, however, no human intervention study has examined the effects of DGLA. Therefore, we investigated the effects of DGLA on pollen-induced allergic symptoms in healthy adults. We performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study comprising healthy Japanese men and women. Each subject received four 250 mg capsules providing 314 mg DGLA/day (DGLA group, n = 18) or olive oil (placebo group, n = 15) for 15 weeks. The primary outcomes, classification of the severity of allergic rhinitis symptoms (CSARS), and the Japanese Rhino-conjunctivitis Quality of Life Questionnaire (JRQLQ) served as symptom scores during the pollen season. In the DGLA group, the cedar pollen associated symptoms of sneezing and a blocked nose in the CSARS were significantly lower than those in the placebo group (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, respectively). Significant trends were observed the symptoms of runny nose in the CSARS and total symptom score (TSS) in the JRQLQ for cedar pollen (p < 0.1). To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the effects of DGLA in humans, and the results suggest that DGLA is effective in reducing allergic symptoms caused by pollen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antibiotic-resistant strains are a global health-threatening problem. Drug-resistant microbes have compromised the control of infectious diseases. Therefore, the search for a novel class of antibiotic drugs is necessary. Streptomycetes have been described as the richest source of bioactive compounds, including antibiotics. This study was aimed to characterize the antibacterial compounds of Streptomyces sp. PJ85 isolated from dry dipterocarp forest soil in Northeast Thailand. The 16S rRNA gene sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed that PJ85 possessed a high similarity to Streptomyces actinomycinicus RCU-197T of 98.90%. The PJ85 strain was shown to produce antibacterial compounds that were active against Gram-positive bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The active compounds of PJ85 were extracted and purified using silica gel column chromatography. Two active antibacterial compounds, compound 1 and compound PJ85_F39, were purified and characterized with spectroscopy, including liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC–MS). Compound 1 was identified as actinomycin D, and compound PJ85_F39 was identified as dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the purification and characterization of the antibacterial compounds of S. actinomycinicus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Second-generation androgen receptor (AR) inhibitors such as enzalutamide are the first-line treatments for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Resistance to enzalutamide will greatly increase the difficulty of prostate cancer treatment and reduce the survival time of patients. However, drug-resistant cancer cells seem to be more sensitive to ferroptosis. Therefore, we constructed a biomimetic tumor-targeting magnetic lipid nanoparticle (t-ML) to codeliver dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) and 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase 1 (DECR1) siRNA (t-ML@DGLA/siDECR1). DGLA is a dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), while DECR1 is overexpressed in prostate cancer and can inhibit the generation of PUFAs. The combination of DGLA and siDECR1 can efficiently induce ferroptosis by peroxidation of PUFAs, which has been verified both in vitro and in vivo. With the assistance of an external magnet, t-ML showed good tumor targeting ability and biocompatibility, and t-ML@DGLA/siDECR1 exhibited significant ferroptosis induction and tumor suppression capabilities. Moreover, in a nude mouse model of prostate cancer fed on a high-fat diet (HFD), there was no distant organ metastasis when the tumor-bearing mice were treated with t-ML@DGLA/siDECR1 and an external magnet, with upregulated PUFAs and downregulated monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). Hence, this study has broadened the way of treating drug-resistant prostate cancer based on ferroptosis induction.

Background Significant associations between total nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations and incident stroke have been reported in some prospective cohort studies. We evaluated the associations between incident stroke and serum concentrations of nonesterified saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans fatty acids. Methods and Results CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study) participants (N=2028) who were free of stroke at baseline (1996–1997) and had an archived fasting serum sample were included in this study. A total of 35 NEFAs were quantified using gas chromatography. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to evaluate associations of 5 subclasses (nonesterified saturated, monounsaturated, omega (n)‐6 polyunsaturated, n‐3 polyunsaturated, and trans fatty acids) of NEFAs and individual NEFAs with incident stroke. Sensitivity analysis was conducted by excluding cases with hemorrhagic stroke (n=45). A total of 338 cases of incident stroke occurred during the median 10.5‐year follow‐up period. Total n‐3 (hazard ratio [HR], 0.77 [95% CI, 0.61–0.97]) and n‐6 (HR, 1.32 [95% CI, 1.01–1.73]) subclasses of NEFA were negatively and positively associated with incident stroke, respectively. Among individual NEFAs, dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid (20:3n‐6) was associated with higher risk (HR, 1.29 [95% CI, 1.02–1.63]), whereas cis‐7‐hexadecenoic acid (16:1n‐9c) and arachidonic acid (20:4n‐6) were associated with a lower risk (HR, 0.67 [95% CI, 0.47–0.97]; HR, 0.81 [95% CI. 0.65–1.00], respectively) of incident stroke per standard deviation increment. After the exclusion of cases with hemorrhagic stroke, these associations did not remain significant. Conclusions A total of 2 NEFA subclasses and 3 individual NEFAs were associated with incident stroke. Of these, the NEFA n‐3 subclass and dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid are diet derived and may be potential biomarkers for total stroke risk.

Antibiotic-resistant strains are a global health-threatening problem. Drug-resistant microbes have compromised the control of infectious diseases. Therefore, the search for a novel class of antibiotic drugs is necessary. Streptomycetes have been described as the richest source of bioactive compounds, including antibiotics. This study was aimed to characterize the antibacterial compounds of Streptomyces sp. PJ85 isolated from dry dipterocarp forest soil in Northeast Thailand. The 16S rRNA gene sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed that PJ85 possessed a high similarity to Streptomyces actinomycinicus RCU-197T of 98.90%. The PJ85 strain was shown to produce antibacterial compounds that were active against Gram-positive bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The active compounds of PJ85 were extracted and purified using silica gel column chromatography. Two active antibacterial compounds, compound 1 and compound PJ85_F39, were purified and characterized with spectroscopy, including liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC–MS). Compound 1 was identified as actinomycin D, and compound PJ85_F39 was identified as dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the purification and characterization of the antibacterial compounds of S. actinomycinicus.

Background: The impact of abdominal obesity (AO) on plasma fatty acid changes and cardiometabolic risk in children who are obese and overweight has rarely been investigated. This study determined whether plasma fatty acid composition differed between children with AO and those without AO and its relationship with metabolic risk, particularly in the obese and overweight groups.Methods: A total of 181 schoolchildren (aged 7–18 years) were included. Anthropometric and biochemical data and plasma fatty acid profiles were analyzed, and the indices of desaturase activity were estimated. Children were categorized based on their body weight and AO status. A continuous metabolic risk score was calculated using the sum of the z-scores of metabolic variables. A one-way analysis of variance test was used to compare the composition ratio of fatty acids between children with and without AO in the obese and overweight groups and normal-weight controls. Pearson analysis was also used to explore significant fatty acid and desaturase indicators associated with metabolic abnormalities.Results: Children who were obese and overweight (N = 126) displayed higher dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (20:3n-6) and γ-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) proportions than normal-weight controls (N = 55), but lower heptadecanoic acid (17:0) proportion, regardless of the AO status of each individual. Obese and overweight children with AO (N = 89), but not their non-AO counterparts (N = 37), exhibited a significantly higher proportion of palmitoleic acid (16:1n-7) than the remaining study groups. Pearson analysis showed that high proportions of palmitoleic acid and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid, as well as increased stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase-1(16) and delta-6 desaturase and decreased delta-5 desaturase activities, are strongly correlated with weight-height ratio, homeostasis model of assessment values for insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, and continuous metabolic risk scores.Conclusion: Higher palmitoleic acid and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid proportions, as well as increased stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase-1(16) and delta-6 desaturase and decreased delta-5 desaturase activities are associated with AO and increased metabolic risk in children who are obese and overweight.

Background Significant associations have been reported between serum total nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations and coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality and incident nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI) in some prospective cohort studies. Little is known about whether individual or subclasses (saturated, polyunsaturated [n‐6 and n‐3], and trans fatty acids) of serum NEFAs relate to CHD mortality and nonfatal MI. Methods and Results CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study) participants (N=1681) who had no history of MI, angina, or revascularization or were free of MI at baseline (1996–1997) were included. NEFAs were quantified using gas chromatography. Cox regression analysis was used to evaluate associations of 5 subclasses and individual NEFAs with CHD composite (CHD mortality and nonfatal MI), CHD mortality, and incident nonfatal MI. During a median follow‐up of 11.7 years, 266 cases of CHD death and 271 cases of nonfatal MI occurred. In the fully adjusted model, no significant associations were identified between individual NEFA and CHD composite. Exploratory analyses indicated that lauric acid (12:0) was negatively associated (hazard ratio [HR], 0.76; 95% CI, 0.59–0.98; P=0.0328) and dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid (20:3n‐6) was positively associated with CHD mortality (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.02–1.76; P=0.0351). Elaidic acid (18:1n‐7t) was positively associated with incident nonfatal MI (HR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.01–2.12; P=0.0445). No significant associations were observed for NEFA subclass and any outcomes. Conclusions In CHS participants, 2 NEFAs, dihomo‐γ‐linolenic and elaidic acids, were positively associated with CHD mortality and nonfatal MI, respectively, suggesting potential susceptibility biomarkers for risks of CHD mortality and nonfatal MI.

Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA; C20:3 n-6) is expected to dominate the functional ingredients market for its role in anti-inflammation and anti-proliferation. The DGLA production by the engineered strain of Aspergillus oryzae with overexpressing Pythium Δ6-desaturase and Δ6-elongase genes was investigated by manipulating the nutrient and fermentation regimes. Of the nitrogen sources tested, the maximum biomass and DGLA titers were obtained in the cultures using NaNO3 grown at pH 6.0. For establishing economically feasible process of DGLA production, the cost-effective medium was developed by using cassava starch hydrolysate (CSH) and NaNO3 as carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. The supplementation with 1% (v/v) mother liquor (ML) into the CSH medium promoted the specific yield of DGLA production (YDGLA/X) comparable with the culture grown in the defined NaNO3 medium, and the DGLA proportion was over 22% in total fatty acid (TFA). Besides, the GLA was also generated at a similar proportion (about 25% in TFA). The mathematical models of the cultures grown in the defined NaNO3 and CSH/ML media were generated, describing that the lipid and DGLA were growth-associated metabolites corresponding to the relevant kinetic parameters of fermentations. The controlled mode of submerged fermentation of the engineered strain was explored for governing the PUFA biosynthesis and lipid-accumulating process in relation to the biomass production. This study provides an informative perspective in the n-6 fatty acid production through physiological manipulation, thus leading to a prospect in viable production of the DGLA-enriched oil by the engineered strain.

Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA; C20:3 n -6) is expected to dominate the functional ingredients market for its role in anti-inflammation and anti-proliferation. The DGLA production by the engineered strain of Aspergillus oryzae with overexpressing Pythium Δ6-desaturase and Δ6-elongase genes was investigated by manipulating the nutrient and fermentation regimes. Of the nitrogen sources tested, the maximum biomass and DGLA titers were obtained in the cultures using NaNO3 grown at pH 6.0. For establishing economically feasible process of DGLA production, the cost-effective medium was developed by using cassava starch hydrolysate (CSH) and NaNO3 as carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. The supplementation with 1% (v / v) mother liquor (ML) into the CSH medium promoted the specific yield of DGLA production (Y DGLA / X ) comparable with the culture grown in the defined NaNO3 medium, and the DGLA proportion was over 22% in total fatty acid (TFA). Besides, the GLA was also generated at a similar proportion (about 25% in TFA). The mathematical models of the cultures grown in the defined NaNO3 and CSH/ML media were generated, describing that the lipid and DGLA were growth-associated metabolites corresponding to the relevant kinetic parameters of fermentations. The controlled mode of submerged fermentation of the engineered strain was explored for governing the PUFA biosynthesis and lipid-accumulating process in relation to the biomass production. This study provides an informative perspective in the n- 6 fatty acid production through physiological manipulation, thus leading to a prospect in viable production of the DGLA-enriched oil by the engineered strain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We performed a cross‐sectional study on 215 Japanese employees aged 20–68 years to investigate the association between NAFLD and serum phospholipid fatty acid composition. NAFLD was diagnosed by ultrasonography. The fatty acid composition between the control and NAFLD groups was compared, and the inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) was performed to eliminate each confounding effect of sex, smoking status, BMI, insulin resistance, dietary cholesterol, and salt intake. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to evaluate the NAFLD prediction accuracy of fatty acids. Seventy‐one subjects were diagnosed with NAFLD. Their serum phospholipid dihomo‐γ‐linolenic acid (DGLA) level was significantly higher after adjusting for each variable using IPTW. In the ROC analysis, the ratio of ARA to DGLA had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.763. By combining the ratio of ARA to DGLA with the ratio of AST to ALT, AUC increased to 0.871. In conclusion, NAFLD subjects in a Japanese working population have higher serum phospholipid DGLA. Results of the IPTW and ROC analysis indicated that serum PL DGLA and the ratio of ARA to DGLA provide diagnosis information on the fatty liver that is different to AST and ALT and improve the accuracy of fatty liver prediction, owning potential value as serum biomarkers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA, C20: 3n-6) is known to have an anti-inflammatory activity, but its range of effects was not well studied because of its limited natural sources. We addressed these issues by constructing an yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain having a complete metabolic pathway for DGLA synthesis by introducing two desaturase and one elongase genes to convert endogenous oleic acid to DGLA. Taking advantage of well-known safety of S. cerevisiae, we previously investigated the efficacy of heat-killed whole DGLA-producing yeast cells on irritant contact dermatitis, and showed that oral intake of this yeast significantly suppressed inflammatory reactions, whereas no such suppression was observed by the intake of 25 times the amount of purified DGLA. Since this method is considered to be a simple and efficient way to suppress inflammation, we examined its effectiveness against allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in this study and showed that this method was also effective against ACD. Oral administration of whole DGLA-producing yeast suppresses allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) with an inhibition of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines production in mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Levels of the minor FA DGLA are 2-fold higher than AA in term rabbit placentas. • In rabbit placentas, FADS2 and ELOVL5 are expressed at higher levels than in livers. • FADS1 and ELOVL2 are expressed at lower levels in rabbit placentas than in livers. • These gene expression changes may facilitate DGLA production and healthy pregnancies. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) are essential for both fetal and placental development. We characterized the FA composition and gene expression levels of FA-metabolizing enzymes in rabbit placentas. Total FA compositions from term rabbit placentas (n = 7), livers, and plasma (both n = 4) were examined: among LCPUFAs with more than three double bonds, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) was the most abundant (11.4 ± 0.69 %, mean ± SE), while arachidonic acid was the second-most rich component (6.90 ± 0.56 %). DGLA was barely detectable (<1 %) in livers and plasma from term rabbits, which was significantly lower than in placentas (both p < 0.0001). Compared with the liver, transcript levels of the LCPUFA-metabolizing enzymes FADS2 and ELOVL5 were 7- and 4.5-fold higher in placentas (both p < 0.05), but levels of FADS1 and ELOVL2 were significantly lower (both p < 0.01). Our results suggest a placenta-specific enzyme expression pattern and LCPUFA profile in term rabbits, which may support a healthy pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atherosclerosis and its complications are responsible for one in three global deaths. Nutraceuticals show promise in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis but require an indepth understanding of the mechanisms underlying their actions. A previous study showed that the omega-6 fatty acid, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), attenuated atherosclerosis in the apolipoprotein E deficient mouse model system. However, the mechanisms underlying such protective effects of DGLA are poorly understood and were therefore investigated. We show that DGLA attenuates chemokine-driven monocytic migration together with foam cell formation and the expression of key pro-atherogenic genes induced by three pro-inflammatory cytokines in human macrophages. The effect of DGLA on interferon-γ signaling was mediated via inhibition of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 phosphorylation on serine 727. In relation to anti-foam cell action, DGLA inhibits modified LDL uptake by both macropinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis, the latter by reduction in expression of two key scavenger receptors (SR-A and CD36), and stimulates cholesterol efflux from foam cells. DGLA also improves macrophage mitochondrial bioenergetic profile by decreasing proton leak. Gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1, upstream precursor and key metabolite respectively of DGLA, also acted in an anti-atherogenic manner. The actions of DGLA extended to other key atherosclerosis-associated cell types with attenuation of endothelial cell proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells in response to platelet-derived growth factor. This study provides novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-atherogenic actions of DGLA and supports further assessments on its protective effects on plaque regression in vivo and in human trials. • Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) attenuates atherosclerosis in a mouse model system. • The mechanisms underlying anti-atherogenic actions of DGLA are poorly understood. • DGLA inhibited atherogenic processes in three key cell types in this disease. • Mechanisms underlying such protective actions of DGLA were identified. • Studies inform on the beneficial anti-atherogenic actions of DGLA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of dietary omega-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) on host microbiome and gut associated immune function in fish is unexplored. The effect of dietary supplementation with the omega-6 LC-PUFA-rich microalga Lobosphaera incisa wild type (WT) and its delta-5 desaturase mutant (MUT), rich in arachidonic-acid and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), respectively, on intestinal gene expression and microbial diversity was analyzed in zebrafish. For 1 month, fish were fed diets supplemented with broken biomass at 7.5% and 15% (w/w) of the two L. incisa strains and a control nonsupplemented commercial diet. Dietary supplementation resulted in elevated expression of genes related to arachidonic acid metabolism-cyclooxygenase 2 (cox-2), lipoxygenase 1(lox-1), anti-inflammatory cytokine-interleukin 10 (il-10), immune defense-lysozyme (lys), intestinal alkaline phosphatase (iap), complement (c3b), and antioxidants-catalase (cat), glutathione peroxidase (gpx). Microbiome analysis of the gut showed higher diversity indices for microbial communities in fish that were fed the supplemented diets compared to controls. Different treatment groups shared 237 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that corresponded to the core microbiome, and unique OTUs were evident in different dietary groups. Overall, the zebrafish gut microbiome was dominated by the phylum Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria (averaging 38.4% and 34.6%, respectively), followed by Bacteroidetes (12.9%), Tenericutes, Planctomycetes, and Actinobacteria (at 3.1–1.3%). Significant interaction between some of the immune-related genes and microbial community was demonstrated.

Arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA, 20:3n-6) are omega-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), which are key precursors for lipid mediators of the immune system and inflammatory response. The microalga Lobosphaera incisa (WT) and its Δ5-desaturase mutant P127 (MUT) are unique photosynthetic sources for ARA and DGLA, respectively. This study explores the effect of dietary supplementation with L. incisa and P127 biomass on tissue fatty acid composition, immune function, and disease resistance in zebrafish (Danio rerio). The broken microalgal biomass was added to commercial fish feed at 7.5 and 15% (w/w), providing 21.8 mg/g feed ARA for the WT-supplemented group and 13.6 mg/g feed DGLA for the MUT-supplemented group at the 15% inclusion levels. An unsupplemented group was used as the control. After 1 month of feeding, fish were challenged with Streptococcus iniae. Fish were sampled before the challenge and 1 week after the challenge for various analyses. Tissue ARA and DGLA levels significantly increased in the liver, corresponding to microalgal supplementation levels. The elevated expression of specific immune-related genes was evident in the kidneys in all treatment groups after 1 month of feeding, including genes related to eicosanoid synthesis, lysozyme, and NF-κB. In the liver, microalgal supplementation led to the upregulation of genes related to immune function and antioxidant defense while the expression of examined genes involved in ARA metabolism was downregulated. Importantly, fish fed with 15% of both WT- and MUT-supplemented feed showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher survival percentages (78 and 68%, respectively, as compared to only 46% in the control group). The elevated expression of genes related to inflammatory and immune responses was evident post-challenge. Collectively, the results of the current study demonstrate the potential of microalgae-derived dietary ARA and DGLA in improving immune competence and resistance to bacterial infection in zebrafish as a model organism.

Arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4 n -6) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA, 20:3 n -6) are omega-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), which are key precursors for lipid mediators of the immune system and inflammatory response. The microalga Lobosphaera incisa (WT) and its Δ5-desaturase mutant P127 (MUT) are unique photosynthetic sources for ARA and DGLA, respectively. This study explores the effect of dietary supplementation with L. incisa and P127 biomass on tissue fatty acid composition, immune function, and disease resistance in zebrafish (Danio rerio). The broken microalgal biomass was added to commercial fish feed at 7.5 and 15% (w/w), providing 21.8 mg/g feed ARA for the WT-supplemented group and 13.6 mg/g feed DGLA for the MUT-supplemented group at the 15% inclusion levels. An unsupplemented group was used as the control. After 1 month of feeding, fish were challenged with Streptococcus iniae. Fish were sampled before the challenge and 1 week after the challenge for various analyses. Tissue ARA and DGLA levels significantly increased in the liver, corresponding to microalgal supplementation levels. The elevated expression of specific immune-related genes was evident in the kidneys in all treatment groups after 1 month of feeding, including genes related to eicosanoid synthesis, lysozyme, and NF-κB. In the liver, microalgal supplementation led to the upregulation of genes related to immune function and antioxidant defense while the expression of examined genes involved in ARA metabolism was downregulated. Importantly, fish fed with 15% of both WT- and MUT-supplemented feed showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher survival percentages (78 and 68%, respectively, as compared to only 46% in the control group). The elevated expression of genes related to inflammatory and immune responses was evident post-challenge. Collectively, the results of the current study demonstrate the potential of microalgae-derived dietary ARA and DGLA in improving immune competence and resistance to bacterial infection in zebrafish as a model organism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) have a risk of cognitive impairment and inflammation. Many follow a low-phenylalanine (low-Phe) diet devoid of animal protein in combination with medical foods (MFs).Objective: To assess lipid metabolism in participants with PKU consuming amino acid MFs (AA-MFs) or glycomacropeptide MFs (GMP-MFs), we conducted fatty acid and metabolomics analyses.Methods: We used subsets of fasting plasma and urine samples from our randomized crossover trial in which participants with early-treated classical and variant (milder) PKU consumed a low-Phe diet combined with AA-MFs or GMP-MFs for 3 wk each. Fatty acid profiles of red blood cell (RBC) membranes were determined for 25 adults (aged 18-49 y) with PKU and 143 control participants. Metabolomics analyses of plasma and urine samples were conducted by Metabolon for 9-10 adolescent and adult participants with PKU and for 15 control participants.Results: RBC fatty acid profiles were not significantly different with AA-MFs or GMP-MFs. PKU participants showed higher total n-6:n-3 (ω-6:ω-3) fatty acids (mean ± SD percentages of total fatty acids: AA-MF = 5.45% ± 1.07%; controls = 4.33%; P < 0.001) and lower docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; AA-MF = 3.21% ± 0.98%; controls = 3.70% ± 1.01%; P = 0.02) and eicosapentaenoic acid (AA-MF = 0.33% ± 0.12%; controls = 0.60% ± 0.43%; P < 0.001) in RBCs than did control participants. Despite higher carnitine intake from AA-MFs than GMP-MFs (mean ± SE intake: AA-MFs = 58.6 ± 5.3 mg/d; GMP-MFs = 0.3 ± 0.01 mg/d; P < 0.001), plasma concentrations of carnitine were similar and not different from those in the control group (AA-MF compared with GMP-MF, P = 0.73). AA-MFs resulted in higher urinary excretion of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which is synthesized by bacteria from carnitine, compared with GMP-MFs (mean ± SE scaled intensity-TMAO: AA-MFs = 1.2 ± 0.1, GMP-MFs = 0.9 ± 0.1; P = 0.005). Plasma deoxycarnitine was lower in PKU participants than in control participants, suggesting reduced carnitine biosynthesis in PKU (AA-MF = 0.9 ± 0.1; GMP-MF = 1.0 ± 0.1; controls = 1.3 ± 0.1; AA-MF compared with controls, P = 0.01; GMP-MF compared with controls, P = 0.04).Conclusions: Supplementation with DHA is needed in PKU. Carnitine supplementation of AA-MFs shows reduced bioavailability due, in part, to bacterial degradation to TMAO, whereas the bioavailability of carnitine is greater with prebiotic GMP-MFs. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01428258. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are two major families of PUFAs present as essential cellular components which possess diverse bioactivities. The ω-3s, mainly found in seafood, are associated with many beneficial effects on human health, while the ω-6s are more abundant in our daily diet and could be implicated in many pathological processes including cancer development. Increasing evidence suggests that the adverse effects of ω-6s may be largely attributed to arachidonic acid (AA, a downstream ω-6) and the metabolite prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) that stems from its cyclooxygenase (COX)-catalyzed lipid peroxidation. On the other hand, two of AA's upstream ω-6s, γ-linolenic acid (GLA) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), are shown to possess certain anti-cancer activities, including inducing cell apoptosis and inhibiting cell proliferation. In this paper, we review the documented anti-cancer activities of ω-6 PUFAs, including the recent findings regarding the anti-cancer effects of free radical-mediated DGLA peroxidation. The possible mechanisms and applications of DGLA (and other ω-6s) in inducing anti-cancer activity are also discussed. Considering the wide availability of ω-6s in our daily diet, the study of the potential beneficial effect of ω-6 PUFAs may guide us to develop an ω-6-based diet care strategy for cancer prevention and treatment.

The oleaginous microalga Lobosphaera incisa (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta) contains arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4 n − 6) in all membrane glycerolipids and in the storage lipid triacylglycerol. The optimal growth temperature of the wild-type (WT) strain is 25 °C; chilling temperatures (≤ 15 °C) slow its growth. This effect is more pronounced in the delta-5-desaturase ARA-deficient mutant P127, in which ARA is replaced with dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA, 20:3 n − 6). In nutrient-replete cells grown at 25 °C, the major chloroplast lipid monogalactosylglycerol (MGDG) was dominated by C18/C16 species in both strains. Yet ARA constituted over 10% of the total fatty acids in the WT MGDG as a component of C20/C18 and C20/C20 species, whereas DGLA was only a minor component of MGDG in P127. Both strains increased the percentage of 18:3 n − 3 in membrane lipids under chilling temperatures. The temperature downshift led to a dramatic increase in triacylglycerol at the expense of chloroplast lipids. WT and P127 showed a similarly high photochemical quantum yield of photosystem II, whereas non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and violaxanthin de-epoxidation were drastically higher in P127, especially at 15 °C. Fluorescence anisotropy measurements indicated that ARA-containing MGDG might contribute to sustaining chloroplast membrane fluidity upon dropping to the chilling temperature. We hypothesize that conformational changes in chloroplast membranes and increased rigidity of the ARA-deficient MGDG of P127 at chilling temperatures are not compensated by trienoic fatty acids. This might ‘lock’ violaxanthin de-epoxidase in the activated state causing high constitutive NPQ and alleviate the risk of photodamage under chilling conditions in the mutant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Depression is a major public health challenge worldwide, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially n-3 PUFAs, have been found to inversely associate with the risk of depression. However, only few cross-sectional studies have investigated the association between dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), an n-6 PUFA with anti-inflammatory effects, and depression. The aims of the present study were to examine an association between serum DGLA and the risk of depression, and to study whether the potential association is mediated via inflammation.Methods: A 20-year prospective Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor (KIHD) follow-up study was conducted from 1984 to 1989 with 2179 middle-aged and older Finnish men (42-60 years old at baseline). The baseline concentrations of serum fatty acids, including DGLA, were determined. A hospital discharge diagnosis of depression was used as the main outcome and obtained from linkage to National Hospital Discharge Register. Serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were measured to assess inflammation.Results: An inverse association between serum DGLA concentration and incidence of depression was found after adjustment for several potential confounders (Hazard ratio HR 0.53, CI 0.36-0.79, P=0.002). The association between DGLA and depression was not dependent on inflammation (P-interaction=0.618).Limitations: Our findings may not be generalizable to individuals below middle-age or women. Moreover, we were unable to consider cases with mild depression in the longitudinal setting.Conclusions: Higher serum DGLA concentrations may predict lower risk of develop depression in elderly men. Further studies are warranted to address potential mechanisms as mechanism behind this association remains unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Background Hepatic steatosis is considered one of the features of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) metabolism is modulated in obesity. However, it has yet to be fully elucidated whether a serum PUFA profile is associated with hepatic steatosis. Objective We aimed to clarify the relationship between a serum PUFA profile and liver lipid content. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted on 288 patients with dyslipidemia, diabetes, or coronary artery disease on statin therapy. Several PUFAs were measured, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid (AA) in serum lipids, and Δ-5 desaturase (D5D) activity was estimated by AA to DGLA ratio. Abdominal computed tomography (CT) measured visceral fat area (VFA) and the ratio of CT attenuation for liver to spleen (L/S). Results The L/S ratio showed significant correlations with serum DGLA level and D5D activity ( p < 0.0001 for both). Serum DGLA level and D5D activity were significantly correlated with body mass index (BMI) or VFA, and with Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) ( p < 0.0001 for all). Multivariate logistic analysis revealed that a high DGLA level or low D5D activity was a significant determinant for hepatic steatosis ( p < 0.0001 for both) independent of BMI and HOMA-IR. ROC analysis revealed that they significantly enhanced the value of MetS-related factors in predicting hepatic steatosis ( p < 0.05 for both). Conclusions A high DGLA level and low D5D activity in serum lipids may be useful markers predicting hepatic steatosis incrementally to MetS-related conventional factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arachidonic acid (20:4Δ5,8,11,14, AA)-derived eicosanoids regulate inflammation and promote cancer development. Previous studies have targeted prostaglandin enzymes in an attempt to modulate AA metabolism. However, due to safety concerns surrounding the use of pharmaceutical agents designed to target Ptgs2 (cyclooxygenase 2) and its downstream targets, it is important to identify new targets upstream of Ptgs2. Therefore, we determined the utility of antagonizing tissue AA levels as a novel approach to suppressing AA-derived eicosanoids. Systemic disruption of the Fads1 (Δ5 desaturase) gene reciprocally altered the levels of dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (20:3Δ8,11,14, DGLA) and AA in mouse tissues, resulting in a profound increase in 1-series-derived and a concurrent decrease in 2-series-derived prostaglandins. The lack of AA-derived eicosanoids, e.g., PGE2, was associated with perturbed intestinal crypt proliferation, immune cell homeostasis, and a heightened sensitivity to acute inflammatory challenge. In addition, null mice failed to thrive, dying off by 12 weeks of age. Dietary supplementation with AA extended the longevity of null mice to levels comparable to wild-type mice. We propose that this new mouse model will expand our understanding of how AA and its metabolites mediate inflammation and promote malignant transformation, with the eventual goal of identifying new drug targets upstream of Ptgs2.

The mammalian Δ6-desaturase coded by fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2; HSA11q12-q13.1) catalyzes the first and rate-limiting step for the biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. FADS2 is known to act on at least five substrates, and we hypothesized that the FADS2 gene product would have Δ8-desaturase activity. Saccharomyces cerevisiae transformed with a FADS2 construct from baboon neonate liver cDNA gained the function to desaturate 11,14-eicosadienoic acid (20:2n-6) and 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid (20:3n-3) to yield 20:3n-6 and 20:4n-3, respectively. Competition experiments indicate that Δ8-desaturation favors activity toward 20:3n-3 over 20:2n-6 by 3-fold. Similar experiments show that Δ6-desaturase activity is favored over Δ8-desaturase activity by 7-fold and 23-fold for n-6 (18:2n-6 vs 20:2n-6) and n-3 (18:3n-3 vs 20:3n-3), respectively. In mammals, 20:3n-6 is the immediate precursor of prostaglandin E1 and thromboxane B1. 20:3n-6 and 20:4n-3 are also immediate precursors of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, respectively. These findings provide unequivocal molecular evidence for a novel alternative biosynthetic route to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in mammals from substrates previously considered to be dead-end products.

We constructed dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA)-producing strains with disruption of the Δ5-desaturase ( Δ5ds ) gene, which encodes a key enzyme catalyzing the bioconversion of DGLA to arachidonic acid (ARA), by efficient gene-targeting, using Δlig4 strain of Mortierella alpina 1S-4 as the host. In previous study, we had already identified and disrupted the lig4 gene encoding DNA ligase 4, which involves in non-homologous end joining, in M. alpina 1S-4, and the Δlig4 strain had showed efficient gene-targeting. In this study, the uracil auxotroph of Δlig4 strain was constructed, and then transformed for disruption of Δ5ds . The isolation of nine Δ5ds -disruptants out of 18 isolates indicated that the disruption efficiency was 50%. The ratio of DGLA among the total fatty acids of the Δ5ds -disruptants reached 40.1%; however, no ARA was detected. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the construction of DGLA-producing transformants by using the efficient gene-targeting system in M. alpina 1S-4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important question for mammalian nutrition is the relative efficiency of C18 versus C20 essential fatty acids (EFAs) for supporting the tissue composition of n-3 and n-6 pathway end products. One specific question is whether C22 EFAs are made available to tissues more effectively by dietary α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (18:2n-6) or by dietary eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (20:3n-6). To address this question in a direct manner, four stable isotope compounds were given simultaneously in a novel paradigm. A single oral dose of a mixture of 2H5-18:3n-3, 13C-U-20:5n-3, 13C-U-18:2n-6, and 2H5-20:3n-6 was administered to rats given a defined diet. There was a preferential in vivo conversion of arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) to docosatetraenoic acid (22:4n-6) and of 22:4n-6 to n-6 docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6) when the substrates originated from the C18 precursors. However, when the end products docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) or 22:5n-6 were expressed as the total amount in the plasma compartment divided by the dosage, this parameter was 11-fold greater for 20:5n-3 than for 18:3n-3 and 14-fold greater for 20:3n-6 than for 18:2n-6.Thus, on a per dosage basis, the total amounts of n-3 and n-6 end products accreted in plasma were considerably greater for C20 EFA precursors relative to C18.

Dihomo- γ -linolenic acid (DGLA) has emerged as a significant molecule differentiating healthy and inflamed tissues. Its position at a pivotal point of metabolic pathways leading to anti-inflammatory derivatives or via arachidonic acid (ARA) to pro-inflammatory lipid mediators makes this n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) an intriguing research subject. The balance of ARA to DGLA is probably a critical factor affecting inflammatory processes in the body. The aim of this narrative review was to examine the potential roles of DGLA and related n-6 PUFAs in inflammatory conditions, such as obesity-associated disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, atopic dermatitis, asthma, cancers, and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. DGLA can be produced by cultured fungi or be obtained via endogenous conversion from γ -linolenic acid (GLA)-rich vegetable oils. Several disease states are characterized by abnormally low DGLA levels in the body, while others can feature elevated levels. A defect in the activity of ∆6-desaturase and/or ∆5-desaturase may be one factor in the initiation and progression of these conditions. The potential of GLA and DGLA administrations as curative or ameliorating therapies in inflammatory conditions and malignancies appears modest at best. Manipulations with ∆6- and ∆5-desaturase inhibitors or combinations of long-chain PUFA supplements with n-3 PUFAs could provide a way to modify the body's DGLA and ARA production and the concentrations of their pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. However, clinical data remain scarce and further well-designed studies should be actively promoted.

To develop an efficient gene-targeting system in Mortierella alpina 1S-4, we identified the ku80 gene encoding the Ku80 protein, which is involved in the nonhomologous end-joining pathway in genomic double-strand break (DSB) repair, and constructed ku80 gene-disrupted strains via single-crossover homologous recombination. The Δku80 strain from M. alpina 1S-4 showed no negative effects on vegetative growth, formation of spores, and fatty acid productivity, and exhibited high sensitivity to methyl methanesulfonate, which causes DSBs. Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA)-producing strains were constructed by disruption of the Δ5- desaturase gene, encoding a key enzyme of bioconversion of DGLA to ARA, using the Δku80 strain as a host strain. The significant improvement of gene-targeting efficiency was not observed by disruption of the ku80 gene, but the construction of DGLA-producing strain by disruption of the Δ5- desaturase gene was succeeded using the Δku80 strain as a host strain. This report describes the first study on the identification and disruption of the ku80 gene in zygomycetes and construction of a DGLA-producing transformant using a gene-targeting system in M. alpina 1S-4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic and relapsing skin disorder with pruritic skin symptoms. We previously reported that dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) prevented the development of AD in NC/Tnd mice, though the mechanism remained unclear. Objective We attempted to investigate the mechanism of preventive effect of DGLA on AD development in NC/Tnd mice. Methods The clinical outcomes of NC/Tnd mice that were given diets containing DGLA, arachidonic acid, or eicosapentaenoic acid were compared. Lipid mediator contents in the skin in each group were also quantified. In addition, release of lipid mediators from RBL-2H3 mast cells treated with either DGLA or prostaglandin D 1 (PGD 1 ) was measured. Furthermore, effect of PGD 1 on gene expression of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) in PAM212 keratinocyte cells was determined. Results Only DGLA containing diet suppressed the development of dermatitis in vivo. By quantifying the 20-carbon fatty acid-derived eicosanoids in the skin, the application of DGLA was found to upregulate PGD 1 , which correlated with a better outcome in NC/Tnd mice. Moreover, we confirmed that mast cells produced PGD 1 after DGLA exposure, thereby exerting a suppressive effect on immunoglobulin E-mediated degranulation. PGD 1 also suppressed gene expression of TSLP in keratinocytes. Conclusion These results suggest that oral administration of DGLA causes preventive effects on AD development in NC/Tnd mice by regulating the PGD 1 supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The association between imbalance of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially low plasma n-3 to n-6 PUFA ratio, and risk of cardiovascular diseases is well known. A balance of plasma PUFAs is determined not only by dietary fatty acid intake, but also by the endogenous fatty acid metabolism, which could be dysregulated by diabetes. In this study, we investigated the plasma n-3 and n-6 PUFA profile and fatty acid desaturase activity in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Materials/Methods The subjects were 396 patients with T2D and 122 healthy controls. Plasma eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), arachidonic acid (AA), and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) levels were measured by capillary gas chromatography. Results Plasma DHA, AA, and DGLA levels were significantly higher, and EPA levels tended to be lower in patients with T2D than in the controls. Patients with T2D also exhibited significantly lower EPA/AA, DHA/AA, and (EPA + DHA)/AA ratios, and a higher AA/DGLA ratio than the controls. Multiple regression analyses, including age, sex, body mass index, and metabolic parameters in the total population, revealed that the presence of T2D was independently associated with elevated plasma DHA, AA, and DGLA levels and decreased EPA/AA, DHA/AA, and (EPA + DHA)/AA ratios. Furthermore, T2D was independently and positively related to the AA/DGLA ratio, which serves as an estimate of delta (Δ)-5 desaturase activity. Conclusions Elevated plasma AA levels and decreased n-3 PUFA/AA ratios in T2D are attributable, at least partly, to Δ5 desaturase activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyunsaturated fatty acids have been attracting considerable interest because of their many biological activities and important roles in human health and nutrition. Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA; C20: 3 n-6) is known to have an anti-inflammatory activity, but its range of effects was not well studied because of its limited natural sources. Taking advantage of genetic tractability and increasing wealth of accessible data of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we have previously constructed a DGLA-producing yeast strain by introducing two types of desaturase and one elongase genes to convert endogenous oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) to DGLA. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of oral intake of heat-killed whole DGLA-producing yeast cells in the absence of lipid purification on cutaneous inflammation. Topical application of croton oil to mouse ears induces ear swelling in parallel with the increased production of chemokines and accumulation of infiltrating cells into the skin sites. These inflammatory reactions were significantly suppressed in a dose-dependent manner by oral intake of the DGLA-producing yeast cells for only 7 days. This suppression was not observed by the intake of the γ-linolenic acid-producing (C18:3 n-6, an immediate precursor of DGLA) yeast, indicating DGLA itself suppressed the inflammation. Further analysis demonstrated that DGLA exerted an anti-inflammatory effect via prostaglandin E1 formation because naproxen, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, attenuated the suppression. Since 25-fold of purified DGLA compared with that provided as a form of yeast was not effective, oral administration of the whole DGLA-producing yeast is considered to be a simple but efficient method to suppress inflammatory responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]