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This opinion, produced upon a request from the European Commission, focuses on transport of domestic birds and rabbits in containers (e.g. any crate, box, receptacle or other rigid structure used for the transport of animals, but not the means of transport itself). It describes and assesses current transport practices in the EU, based on data from literature, Member States and expert opinion. The species and categories of domestic birds assessed were mainly chickens for meat (broilers), end-of-lay hens and day-old chicks. They included to a lesser extent pullets, turkeys, ducks, geese, quails and game birds, due to limited scientific evidence. The opinion focuses on road transport to slaughterhouses or to production sites. For day-old chicks, air transport is also addressed. The relevant stages of transport considered are preparation, loading, journey, arrival and uncrating. Welfare consequences associated with current transport practices were identified for each stage. For loading and uncrating, the highly relevant welfare consequences identified are handling stress, injuries, restriction of movement and sensory overstimulation. For the journey and arrival, injuries, restriction of movement, sensory overstimulation, motion stress, heat stress, cold stress, prolonged hunger and prolonged thirst are identified as highly relevant. For each welfare consequence, animal-based measures (ABMs) and hazards were identified and assessed, and both preventive and corrective or mitigative measures proposed. Recommendations on quantitative criteria to prevent or mitigate welfare consequences are provided for microclimatic conditions, space allowances and journey times for all categories of animals, where scientific evidence and expert opinion support such outcomes. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Domestic birds are considered as one of the important sources of food for humans. The parasites generally caused the poor health and decrees in production of these birds, therefore this study was conducted to identify the ectoparasites that infect domestic birds at Gharbia Governorate. During the two successive years (2018 and 2019), several parasites of domestics bird species were collected by Tullgeren funnel. Five domestic bird species, (chickens, ducks, geese, pigeon and turkey hen) at four districts (Al Mahalla Al Kobra, Kutour, Samannoud and Tanta) at Gharbiya governorate were investigated. The collected parasites were forty-four mite species belonging to twenty-three families and two suborders, nine tick species belonged to two families and one species and one suborder. Eleven lice species belonged to four families and two suborders. In conclusion, 45 mite species, 9 ticks species and 5 lice species were collected from litter, chickens, ducks, Pekeeny ducks, quails, geese, pigeon in Gharbiya Governorate during successive two years. Ectoparasites are generally considered as the primary cause of many deleterious effects for many poultry species. Such effects including poor health, low growth, and decrease the productivity in Egyptian governorate.

The prevailing methodology of noncontinuous wildlife market surveys contributes little to our understanding of the spatiotemporal variations of markets and their supply. Here, we investigate trends in bird trade in a large regional domestic market. Near‐continuous monthly surveys at a pet market in Guangzhou, China discovered over 95,000 individuals of 147 species between 2011 and 2013. We analyzed optimal survey frequency, finding that autumn is the best season to detect maximal species diversity. In a mixed‐effects model, we found that species‐specific purposes for trade controls the occurrence of species across shops in a market. A buffer analysis showed that 13 of the 15 most abundant species are distributed within 200 km of the market. However, hotspots of range overlap for wild‐caught, native species were found at great distances from the market within China and along China's borders. Identifying the location of theoretical trapping bottlenecks (areas where trapping levels are high) from this market data can help identify regions (e.g., southwest China) that are affected by trade, where local bird populations may be experiencing residual impacts from harvesting. Our results provide insights to improve methodologies for monitoring wildlife markets and identify priority regions for population surveys of in‐demand wild bird species.

A discrete-time model describing the west nile virus transmission among the mosquito, wild bird, and domestic bird populations is constructed. The expressions for the basic reproduction number R 0 and the disease-free fixed point of the model are computed. The local stability of the disease-free fixed point is established based on R 0 . Optimal control theory is used to devise the most effective administration profile of mosquito larvicide, mosquito adulticide and domestic bird-protection in controlling the virus transmission among the mosquito – wild bird – domestic bird community.

The measurement of corticosterone in feathers is an appealing tool for assessing glucocorticoids in wild and domestic bird species. Feather corticosterone measurements can be performed noninvasively and can provide a means for comparing glucocorticoid secretion between individual birds; thus, such measurements can be used to assess the welfare of domestic poultry. The focus of this study was to assess the validity of detecting corticosterone in turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) feathers using an ELISA and investigate differences between genetic lines. Primary feather 9 was obtained at a processing plant from 123 individuals from 3 different purebred turkey lines (line A [N = 46], line B [N = 24], and line C [N = 53]). Assay validation tests were performed using a commercially available ELISA kit (Cayman Chemicals, Cedarlane Labs, Canada). Indicators of accuracy, recovery, precision, and sensitivity were sufficient. Significant differences in feather corticosterone concentration between the 3 lines were observed. Line C had significantly higher feather corticosterone than line A (P < 0.0001) and line B (P = 0.036). These results indicate that the quantification of feather corticosterone using an ELISA is a valid method for assessing glucocorticoid levels in turkeys. This is the first report of differences in feather corticosterone between different purebred turkey lines. Differences observed between purebred lines provide an intriguing basis for further investigation into the genetic parameters of glucocorticoid levels in turkeys.

Since few studies have addressed the embryonic development of Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), the objective of the present study was to evaluate its embryonic development in the Cerrado region of Brazil and compare the results to published descriptions of the embryonic development of other domestic bird species. The commercialized weight for Guinea fowl eggs used in the experiment was found to be 37.57 g, while egg fertility was 92%. Embryo growth rate (%) was higher on the sixth day of incubation relative to other days. The heart began beating on the third day of development, while eye pigmentation and upper and lower limb buds appeared on the sixth day. The yolk sac was incorporated on the 24th day followed by chick external pipping and hatching on the 28th day. Comparisons revealed that the embryonic development of Guinea fowl exhibits both similarities to, and differences from, the embryonic development of other domestic birds. From three days of embryonic development, differences were observed among the compared species. Despite the same incubation period, Guinea fowl embryos develop faster than turkeys. All species begin internal pecking two days before hatching and internal pecking 24 h before hatching.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo determinar o defeito ósseo crítico em diáfise ulnar de codorna-doméstica (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Para o experimento, 36 codornas-domésticas foram distribuídas de forma randomizada, em dois grupos (GI e GII), sendo que no grupo I (GI) não foi utilizada qualquer estabilização da ulna e no grupo II (GII) a ulna foi estabilizada com um pino liso de Kirschner de 0,8 mm de diâmetro. Cada grupo foi subdividido em três subgrupos de 6 animais, onde foram realizados 3 diferentes defeitos ósseos em diáfise de ulna: subgrupo osteotomia (GI-0 e GII-0) e ostectomia de 2 (GI-2 e GII-2) e 4 vezes (GI-4 e GII-4) o diâmetro diafisário ulnar. Para avaliação de não-união e determinação do defeito crítico foram realizados exames radiográficos do membro operado aos 10, 30 e 60 dias de pós-operatório e, a partir desses, foram estabelecidos escores de não-união, avaliação da taxa de consolidação e análise goniométrica da articulação úmero-radio-ulnar e carpo. Na análise estatística foram observadas diferenças entre os grupos GI e GII e entre os diferentes tempos de avaliação pós-operatória (p

This paper introduces a time-since-recovery structured, multi-strain, multi-population model of avian influenza. Influenza A viruses infect many species of wild and domestic birds and are classified into two groups based on their ability to cause disease: low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) and high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). Prior infection with LPAI provides partial immunity towards HPAI. The model introduced in this paper structures LPAI-recovered birds (wild and domestic) with time-since-recovery and includes cross-immunity towards HPAI that can fade with time. The model has a unique disease-free equilibrium (DFE), unique LPAI-only and HPAI-only equilibria and at least one coexistence equilibrium. We compute the reproduction numbers of LPAI ( $ {\mathcal R}_{\rm L} $ ) and HPAI ( $ {\mathcal R}_{\rm H} $ ) and show that the DFE is locally asymptotically stable when $ {\mathcal R}_{\rm L} 1 $ ( $ {\mathcal R}_{\rm H} >1 $ ) and it is locally asymptotically stable if HPAI (LPAI) cannot invade the equilibrium, that is, if the invasion number $ \hat {\mathcal {R}}_{\rm L}^{\rm H}

Вивчали морфометричні показники залоз слизової оболонки яйцепроводу курей, перепілок, цесарок, качок і гусок у період яйцевідкладання. Роботу проводили на базі морфологічної лабораторії кафедри анатомії і гістології Житомирського національного агроекологічного університету (м. Житомир, Україна). Використовували мікроскопічні, морфометричні і статистичні методи досліджень. Встановлено, що власна пластинка слизової оболонки відділів, крім піхви, яйцепроводу дослідних птахів представлена пухкою волокнистою сполучною тканиною. Вона містить прості трубчасті розгалужені залози. Діаметр секреторних відділів залоз, об’єм цитоплазми і ядерно-цитоплазматичне відношення гландулоцитів – лабільні показники і тісно пов’язані з функціональною активністю цих клітин, яка визначається фазою секреторного циклу. За наявності яйця у матці яйцепроводу перепілок, цесарок, курей, качок, гусок високі показники об’єму гландулоцитів білкового відділу і перешийка на фоні низького значення ядерно-цитоплазматичного відношення (0,124±0,01–0,161±0,011 і 0,204±0,021–0,225±0,035 відповідно) свідчать про фазу синтезу секрету гландулоцитами. Вперше вивчено субмікроскопічну будову клітин залозистого епітелію слизової оболонки яйцепроводу перепілок. Встановлено, що у цитоплазмі гландулоцитів серед органел загального призначення найкраще розвинута гранулярна ендоплазматична сітка. Між її довгими і розширеними канальцями реєструються секреторні гранули, які містять гомогенний, великої електронної щільності матеріал. За наявності яйця у матці яйцепроводу діаметр секреторних гранул у цитоплазмі гландулоцитів секреторних відділів білкового відділу максимальний (3,45±0,21 мкм), матки – мінімальний (0,85±0,04 мкм). Параметри морфометрії залоз слизової оболонки яйцепроводу клінічно здорових птахів слід використовувати в якості показників норми при діагностиці захворювань яйцепроводу різного генезису і при проведенні експериментальних досліджень., The peculiarities of morphometric indexes of glands of the mucous membrane of the oviduct in hens, quails, guinea fowls, ducks, gooses have been studied during oviposition. The research has been conducted on the basis of morphological laboratory of anatomy and histology departments of the Zhytomyr National Agroecological University (Zhytomyr, Ukraine). Microscopic, morphometric and statistic methods of research have been applied. The lamina propria of the mucosa of the oviduct of birds represented by loose fibrous connective tissue. In all parts of the body, except the vagina, it contains simple tubular branched glands. Diameter of secretory parts of the glands, the volume of cytoplasm and nuclear-cytoplasmatic attitude of glandulocytes is labile indicators and are closely associated with the functional activity of these cells, which are determined by the phase of the secretory cycle. In the presence of eggs in the uterus of the oviduct of quails, Guinea fowl, chickens, ducks, geese high indexes of glandulocytes volume of the magnum and the isthmus on the background of low values of nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio (0.124±0.01–0.161±0.011 and 0.211±0.021–0.225±0.035, respectively) indicate phase of secret synthesis by glandulocytes. The submicroscopic structure of the cell of glandular epithelium of the mucous membrane of the oviduct of the quails is studied for the first time. It is established that in the glandulocyted cytoplasm among the organelles of general purpose granular endoplasmic net is best-developed. The secretory granules containing a homogeneous, large electron density material are logged between its long and dilated tubules. In the presence of eggs in the uterus of the oviduct diameter of the secretory granules in the glandulocytes cytoplasm of secretory part of magnum is maximal (3.45±0.21 μm), of uterus – minimal (0.85±0.04 μm). The parameters of morfometer of glands of the mucous membrane of the oviduct of clinically healthy fowls are suggested to use as normal parameters of norm when diagnosing diseases of various origins and in experimental studiest., Изучали морфометрические показатели желез слизистой оболочки яйцевода кур, перепелок, цесарок, уток, гусынь в период яйцекладки. Работу проводили на базе морфологической лаборатории кафедры анатомии и гистологии Житомирского национального агроэкологического университета (г. Житомир, Украина). Использовали микроскопические, морфометрические и статистические методы исследований. Установлено, что собственная пластинка слизистой оболочки отделов, кроме влагалища, яйцевода исследуемых птиц представлена рыхлой волокнистой соединительной тканью. Она содержит простые трубчастые разветвленные железы. Диаметр секреторных отделов, объем цитоплазмы и ядерно-цитоплазматическое отношение гландулоцитов – лабильные показатели и тесно связаны с функциональной активностью этих клеток, которая определяется фазой секреторного цикла. При наличии яйца в матке яйцевода перепелок, цесарок, кур, уток, гусынь высокие показатели объема гландулоцитов белкового отдела и перешийка на фоне низкого значения ядерно-цитоплазматического отношения (0,124±0,01–0,161±0,011 і 0,204±0,021–0,225±0,035 соответственно) свидетельствует о фазе синтеза секрета гландулоцитами. Впервые изучено субмикроскопическое строение клеток железистого эпителия слизистой оболочки яйцевода перепелок. Установлено, что в цитоплазме гландулоцитов среди органел общего назначения наиболее развита гранулярная эндоплазматическая сетка. Между ее длинными и разветвленными канальцами регистрируются секреторные гранулы, которые содержат гомогенный, большой электронной плотности материал. При наличии яйца в матке яйцевода диаметр секреторных гранул в цитоплазме гландулоцитов секреторных отделов белкового отдела максимальный (3,45±0,21 мкм), матки – минимальный (0,85±0,04 мкм). Параметры морфометрии желез слизистой оболочки яйцевода клинически здоровых птиц следует использовать в качестве показателей нормы при диагностике заболеваний яйцевода различного генезиса и при проведении экспериментальных исследований.

West Nile fever (WNF) is a zoonotic disease, occurring nearly globally. Birds are important host species of West nile virus. West nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne viral disease. Although West Nile Virus causes an asymptomatic infection, especially it can cause neurologic disorders in humans, birds and horses. In this study, blood samples were randomly collected from domestic birds (chicken, duck, goose and turkey). The material consisted of 736 domestic birds, including 394 geese, 129 ducks, 117 turkeys and 96 chickens, from Samsun province in northern Turkey. The serum samples were analysed for the presence of antibodies to WNV using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA). Seropositivity rates in chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys were detected as 3.1%, 0.8%, 1.8% and 17.9% for WNV. Out of 736 serum samples examined, 32 (4.3%) were positive for WNV. The results, recorded for the first time for WNV in Turkey, supported the hypothesis that domestic bird act as a potential reservoir of WNV, and thus have a role in the epidemiology of these diseases.

To date, there are no reports regarding comparison between different bird species in Neospora. caninum infection. In the present study 70 embryonated eggs from quail, partridge, broiler and egg laying chickens were divided into 7 groups equally. Six groups in each species were inoculated with different dilutions (10, 10(2), 10(3), 10(4), 10(5), and 10(6)) of tachyzoites/embryonated egg in the chorioallantoic membrane and the seventh group was considered as control. The mortality rates and clinical signs were studied. All the egg laying chickens and some of the broiler chickens and quails showed neurologic signs like. The results revealed that the mortality rate was dose dependent in broiler chicken embryonated eggs. But mortality rate was dose independent in egg laying chickens and quail. Partridge revealed 100 % mortality rate in all doses. The LD50 in broiler chicken embryonated was 10(2.3). In conclusion, LD50 in the broiler chickens is the lowest between different animal models which shows that the broiler chicken embryonated egg is the best animal model for experimental inducing of neosporosis. Partridge is the most susceptible bird to N. caninum infection. These results reinforce that there is genetic susceptibility to N. caninum in chickens like mice and provide new insights to reach an inexpensive and available animal model for N. caninum infection.

The Bengalese finch, Lonchura domestica, first appeared in European zoos (London, Antwerp, The Hague) in the 1860s and it soon after became popular in the bird trade and among hobby aviculturalists. The species had been bred for many years in Japan before it was imported to Europe. Many theories about its background prevail in the handbooks. Although it was clear from the beginning that it was a purely domestic bird, its origin remained a mystery. Some authors maintain the view that it is a hybrid between various Lonchura species. However, new research has shown that the Bengalese finch is a domestic form of the Whiterumped Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus, 1766), but if it was actually domesticated in China or Japan cannot be determined without further investigation.

Game meat Alheira (Alheira de caça) sausage is a traditional fermented product typical from the Northeast region of Portugal, having bread and meats (including game) as main ingredients. It is a particularly appreciated product by consumers that commands higher prices, especially in comparison with the common Alheira produced with pork and poultry meats. Following our previous work in which several mammalian game meat species were successfully identified in game meat Alheira sausages for authentication purposes, the present work aimed at identifying game bird's species for the overall assessment of labelling compliance. For that purpose, several species-specific PCR assays targeting mitochondrial DNA for the detection of game and domestic bird's meat, namely duck, partridge, pheasant, quail, chicken and turkey were developed, optimised and applied to commercial samples of game meat Alheira for their authentication. The assays revealed a high specificity and sensitivity to detect the addition of all evaluated species down to a level of 0.01% (w/w). PCR results indicated the existence of several inconsistencies with the labelled information, namely the absence of declared game species (duck, partridge and pheasant) and the presence of undeclared poultry meat, pointing out to adulterations owing to substitution of game by domestic meat species. Since this is considered a high-valued traditional product that should be valorised and protected, this work puts in evidence the need for inspection programs to enforce regulation. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the University of Porto/Santander Totta “Projectos pluridisciplinares 2010” and the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through grant no. PEst-C/EQB/LA0006/2013. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The proportion of spermatozoa with elongated nuclei in ejaculates from a strain of guinea fowl was estimated, subjectively, to range from approximately 1 to 6%. It was confirmed by image analysis that in an ejaculate from one male, the distribution of nuclear lengths was bimodal, with a distinct population comprising 10% of spermatozoa having a mean nuclear length that was 52% greater than that of the remaining 90%. Furthermore, the mean DNA content of the 'large-nuclei' population was 1.85 times (not significantly different from twice) that of the main sperm population. The proportion of large-nuclei spermatozoa that was motile was less than that of normal sperm (31% versus 59%) and the velocity of motile spermatozoa was also less (24 microm/s versus 72 microm/s). The poor motility of the large-nuclei spermatozoa in vitro was reflected in their limited performance in vivo, since only 1.1% were found associated with the egg outer perivitelline layer. This is the first report to quantify the occurrence of, presumed, polyploid spermatozoa in a domestic bird. The incidence of such spermatozoa in commercial guinea fowl and other domestic poultry and the genesis and effects on fertility of such spermatozoa may be significant.

To trace the source of the avian H7N9 viruses, we collected 99 samples from 4 live poultry markets and the family farms of 3 patients in Hangzhou city of Zhejiang province, China. We found that almost all positive samples came from chickens and ducks in live poultry markets. These results strongly suggest that the live poultry markets are the major source of recent human infections with H7N9 in Hangzhou city, Zhejiang province of China. Therefore, control measures are needed, not only in the domestic bird population, but also in the live poultry markets to reduce human H7N9 infection risk.

As disturbing as the wildlife trade is in fostering the development of new infectious diseases, recent events suggest that the biggest and most imminent threat may lie much closer to home. Between 2007 and 2008, farmers in the Philippines noticed that pigs were falling sick and dying by the hundreds for unknown reasons.1 A subsequent investigation confirmed the presence of porcine reproductive and respiratory disease syndrome, a serious illness among pigs.2 But, much to the surprise of the investigators, a subtype of Ebola virus, Ebola Reston, was also discovered circulating in a sample of the pigs. This was the first time Ebola of any strain had been found in these animals. ‘We never thought that pigs could be infected,’ says Pierre Rollin, an Ebola expert at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).3 Rollin believes that Ebola Reston is to blame for the pigs’ deaths because tissue studies revealed that the virus had pervaded the spleen, similar to its mode of attack in monkeys. Ebola Reston is named after the strain that was discovered in monkeys shipped to laboratories in the USA from the Philippines on several occasions between 1989 and 1996. The first shipment of Ebola virus was discovered after hundreds of monkeys became severely ill or died in a quarantine facility owned by Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance, Inc.) in Reston, Virginia.

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This chapter will mainly focus on the effects of feed restriction on the welfare of the broiler breeder chicken, where most of the research on feed restriction has been carried out. The effects of short- and long-term feed restriction and food deprivation on welfare in other types of domestic birds will also be discussed where relevant. In the first part of the chapter, the substantial literature on the effects of feed restriction or food deprivation on parameters indicative of domestic bird welfare will be reviewed. Thereafter, the merits and demerits of the various measures that can be applied to reduce the negative effects of feed restriction on broiler breeder welfare, while maintaining target body weight and (re)production at the required level, will be discussed.

Pathological findings in humans, horses, and birds with West Nile (WN) encephalitis show neuronal degeneration and necrosis in the central nervous system (CNS), with diffuse inflammation. The mechanisms of WN viral penetration of the CNS and pathophysiology of the encephalitis remain largely unknown. Since 1996, several epizootics involving hundreds of humans, horses, and thousands of wild and domestic bird cases of encephalitis and mortality have been reported in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Russia, and the USA (see specific chapters in this issue). However, biological and molecular markers of virus virulence should be characterized to assess whether novel strains with increased virulence are responsible for this recent proliferation of outbreaks.

After conventional incubation (n = 2) or incubation in a 60-Hz modulated 2450-MHz microwave field (n = 2), four Leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus) of both genders were assessed for ability to perceive magnetic fields (dc at 4.0 milliteslas; 60-Hz ac at 1.7 milliteslas rms) by the method of conditional suppression. Each bird operantly responded for rewards of grain while being subjected to a Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which a 90-s presentation of an H field served as a conditional stimulus (CS) that terminated in a brief faradic shock to the feet, which served as the unconditional stimulus (US). Five to seven pairings of CS and US occurred aperiodically during daily, 60-min sessions. A total of six tensession blocks of formal testing was conducted, two blocks with the ac field, two with the dc field, and two with a sham field in which the US alone was presented to provide control baselines of responding. Neither mode of incubation nor gender was a reliable source of variation, but highly reliable changes (Ps < 0.01) in the character of operant responding—increased variability—were observed during presentations of the ac or dc field. The domestic fowl may therefore share with several other avian species a sensitivity to H fields, although artifactual sensory cueing borne of vibration or heating of the H-field source was not definitively ruled out. If real, the birds' sensitivity to the nominal dc field was probably associated with behavioral modulation – with incessant movement in the field by a chicken, especially of its head, during the operant-respondent measures of conditioning. On the basis of our findings and those of other investigators, we believe that detection of H fields by avian species has its locus in the retina or in other neuroanatomical substrates of the visual system.

1. The effect of egg shell cuticle removal, using a 14.7 mM solution of sodium hypochlorite, on the water vapour conductance of egg shells was studied in 5 species of domestic bird. 2. The water vapour conductance of fowl and Muscovy duck egg shells was not affected by the treatment. 3. Cuticle removal increased the conductance of turkey and goose shells, particularly those already relatively porous to water vapour. 4. Removal of cuticles from domestic duck egg shells increased water vapour conductance. In this case the effect was most marked for eggs with lower initial conductances. 5. The differing patterns of resistance to water vapour loss associated with egg shell cuticle are related to the ultrastructure of the cuticle itself, especially the number and size of cuticular fissures. 6. The results suggest that egg shell cuticle is a component in a series of resistances associated with the egg shell and that the use of Fick's Law is insufficient to explain water vapour diffusion across the shel...

WITHIN recent years the domestic bird has been used to an increasing extent in physiologic and endocrinologic studies. Some of these investigations have revealed inherent differences between the bird and the mammal (Jailer and Boas, 1950; Zarrow and Baldini, 1952; Morris, 1953; Newcomer, 1959; Nalbandov, 1953). Recently the advent of many new steroids has led to extensive studies on these compounds in the mammal but little work has been done in the bird. The present investigation is concerned with the effect of some of these compounds in the chick and and is designed to determine whether the differences in the action of these compounds in the chick and rat are of a quantitative or qualitative nature and to determine whether some structure-function relationship can be obtained. MATERIAL AND METHODS The chick oviduct test was carried out on 16-day-old chicks of the White Leghorn strain. All birds were injected intramuscularly for …

Poultry keeping has gone through an enormous development in the past years. It has now become one of the most intensive of all branches of livestock farming. With changes in breeding, important changes in the parasitic fauna have occurred simultaneously. Nowadays nematodes, once very common in poultry, have disappeared almost entirely on farms using modern methods of poulty management. However, many domestic birds are still kept in the old-fashioned way, and there is a high chance that they will be infected with nematodes.

The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during International Transport is dated 13th December 1968. It was enforced on 20th February 1971.