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Shifting cultivation, also referred to as slash and burnt agriculture, was a rather extensive farming system that incorporates both cropping and fallow periods in its land rotation. Changes in land use have a marked effect the soil fertility, soil nutrient dynamics and long term sustainability and for their influence in the atmospheric CO2 concentration and global warming. Physico-chemical characteristics of soil in slash and burnt site, fallow land and protected forest have been studied. Soil temperature was maximum in slash and burnt site 20.97°C followed by fallow lands 19.60°C and minimum in protected forest site 19.55°C. However, this trend was reversed for soil moisture which was minimum in slash and burnt site 17.46% followed by fallow land 18.57% and maximum in protected forest 19.26%. In the present study the nutrient status, i.e. soil organic C, nitrogen and total phosphorous, of soil in slash and burnt site was higher than other sites which may be attributed due to addition of ash and partly burnt material. The C/N ratio in slash and burnt site, fallow land and protected forest sites were 8.06, 4.89 and 5.22, respectively. The rate of ammonification, nitrification and N-mineralisation was maximum in rainy season in all the four study sites and minimum in winter season except in site I. There was significant correlation between the rates of ammonification, nitrification and N-mineralisation with soil parameters such as moisture, organic carbon, total nitrogen, temperature and pH. High amounts of nutrient in soil under shifting cultivation are lost through leaching, runoff and soil erosion if not uptaken by the crops. Thus, the stability of shifting cultivation system depends upon recovery and maintenance of soil fertility. If the nutrients lost or displaced during the cropping phase are restored during the fallow phase, the system could continue sustainably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proper fallowing of soil maintains or even improves its yield potential. The aim of this research was to compare five methods of soil protection with high production potential on the yield and quality of strategic plants. The tested methods consisted of five variants: bare fallow—BF; natural fallow—NF; fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.)—FG; a mixture of fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.) with smooth brome (Bromus inermis)—FG+SB; and smooth brome (Bromus inermis)—SB. The soil had been set aside for 9 years, after which time the fallows were terminated and the fields were cropped with winter oilseed rape, winter wheat, and spring wheat in three consecutive years. After the end of fallowing, the content of Nog. and Ctot., pH, and forms of available macro- and microelements in the soil were determined. The influence of each type of fallow on the yield of seeds/grain, straw, total protein, crude fat, and the content of macronutrients in the seeds/grain and straw of the grown crops was determined. Regarding the yields of the crops, the best solution was long-term soil protection via sowing fodder galega or a mixture of fodder galega and smooth brome. A field previously maintained as a fallow with these plants (singly or in combination) could produce over twice-as-high yields of wheat and oilseed rape as those harvested from a field established on bare fallow. The yields of the cereals and oilseed rape obtained in this study prove that food security and environmental protection issues can be reconciled. The methods for protecting farmland temporarily excluded from agricultural production presented in this paper correspond perfectly to the framework of the Green Deal for Europe. Arable land excluded from cultivation can be used to overcome new challenges facing modern agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim. Data collection and analysis of the composition and productivity of vegetation and assessment of carbon sequestration by vegetation and soil in meadow steppe at a fallow site in the Bashkir Cis‐Urals, Russia. Material and Methods. The work is based on a survey of vegetation and soils of meadow steppe located in fallow areas, where post‐agrogenic restoration succession has been going on for more than 20 years. Results. The plant cover of the area studied is close to natural rich‐forb meadow steppes but differs in lower indicators of species richness and saturation, as well as the presence of weedy segetal species. The total plant biomass on the plot studied was estimated at 11.35 t/ha (including live aboveground biomass 2.98 t/ha, mortmass 3.11 t/ha, root weight 5.25 t/ha). The average stock of carbon in the plant biomass is 427.6 g/m2, and the total carbon stock in plant matter within the site is 36.88 tons. The soil cover of the area studied is Chernozem Calcic. The average levels of carbon stocks in short‐thickness soil at the 0–90 cm layer is 308 t/ha, while in medium‐thick soil it is 378 t/ha. Conclusions. A feature of the communities surveyed is a poor floristic composition, low productivity and low proportion of roots (47 % of the total plant biomass), which is caused by incomplete recovering of steppe vegetation and low thickness of the humus horizon. The soils of the site are close to virgin steppe lands in terms of carbon content and reserves.

Land use change has caused the loss of agricultural biodiversity. As major natural enemies of pests in agroecosystems, spiders have important ecological functions in improving agricultural productivity and thus deserve attention. However, few studies have considered their responses to land use changes. Here, we investigated the structure and diversity of the spider community in four land use types, that is, fallow land, woodland, orchard, and cropland in Pengzhou City, China. The differences in species richness, total abundance, community composition, and spider abundances with three foraging strategies and their correlations with environmental factors and agricultural intensity were compared between land use types. The results showed that the total abundance of spiders in fallow land was 71%, 157%, and 214% higher than that in orchard, cropland, and woodland, respectively. Similarly, fallow land maintained the highest species richness. Shannon–Wiener index, community structure heterogeneity, and number of spider species sampled in a single land use type were highest in woodland. Further, spiders with different foraging strategies showed distinctive responses to environmental factors and agricultural practices. The diversity of hunters was negatively correlated with the intensity of agricultural practices and canopy density, while web‐builders were positively correlated with canopy density. The diversity of burrowers was positively correlated with the vertical complexity of vegetation structure. Our study emphasizes the vital role of semi‐natural habitats, like fallow land and woodland, in maintaining spider diversity, and suggests optimizing land uses to provide wide‐open spaces and mitigate the effects of intensified agricultural activities for natural enemies of pests in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article establishes the tendencies of forest formation in fallow lands of different ages, currently used as rangelands, in postagricultural areas of Western Transbaikalia. Assessments of the nature of the restorative dynamics of forests in fallow lands extensively reference the typological and species composition of phytocenoses of the surrounding areas that have never been used for tilling. It is established that herbaceous communities currently emerging in fallow lands and steppe areas include tree species such as Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), more rarely Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), and sometimes Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.). It has been determined that, once removed from intensive pasture rotation, plant communities gradually restore a layered structure and show an increase in the species diversity of plants and in their abundance in communities. At the same time, it is noted that pine is actively advancing into herbaceous (steppe) communities of plant species typical of the forest–steppe and steppe. It has been found that the age composition of pine specimen varies from 2–5-year-old individuals to 20–25-year-old trees growing in isolated groups in fallow lands throughout the study area. It is noted that areas of fallow lands that are adjacent to a closed forest stand tend to have a fairly closed undergrowth, regardless of orographic features of the territory. The ground cover of such groupings is noted to have a significant presence of plant species characteristic of zonal light coniferous forests. That is likely to indicate an early stage of formation of zonal-type light coniferous taiga. A restraining factor in the development of forests in fallow and steppe lands in the study region is the potential increase in anthropogenic influences, mainly grazing regimes, due to an increased number of farms. Human activity in the area often involves periodic anthropogenic fires deliberately set in order to preserve rangelands. Pine undergrowth is also simply felled, both on fallow lands and in adjacent territories. That is, in many respects, a crucial factor for the possibility of formation and development of forests on postagricultural territories in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abandonment of crop production on agricultural lands for several or more years is a widespread practice not only in Europe but also around the world. Economic and political considerations lead to the abandonment of crop production on the poorest lands, although sometimes agriculturally valuable lands are also excluded from farming. Fallow land can be afforested, designated as a dedicated protection area, exposed to natural succession, or used to grow biomass for energy purposes. However, the most important role of agricultural land should be to ensure food safety. The set-aside land with high production potential should be treated in a special way. While lying fallow, the soil can have its fertility sustained or even improved considerably. To this aim, uncultivated land should be properly protected by growing a permanent cover of plant species which will have a positive influence on the soil's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Depending on the geographical location, different plant species will have a beneficial effect on set-aside soil. Given economic and environmental considerations, the best solution is to sow a mixture of grasses and legumes, which can improve substantially the biodiversity on fallow fields, raise the soil's fertility, ensure high CO2 sequestration ratios, and influence beneficially the soil's nutritional status and nutrient management. Soil protection can be provided for many years with little effort. The most recent reports implicate that it is possible to achieve several economic and environmental aims simultaneously in the course of the management of land excluded from agricultural production. These aims include the improvement of biodiversity, control of greenhouse gas emissions, generation of energy, and readiness to resume production of commodity plants. Proper management of fallows corresponds well with the challenges defined in the Green Deal for Europe or the US Green New Deal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the influence of temporary international labor migration on rural dynamics in Nepal, revealing that households with migrants are 50% more likely to leave agricultural land fallow. Topics include the promotion of agricultural intensification technologies and livelihood diversification, with potential implications for increased food insecurity stemming from land fallowing, despite possible improvements through agricultural intensification.

The active development of the problems related to the assessment of the role of the pedosphere in global climate change involves the possibility of application of the quantitative determination of soil organic carbon (SOC) as one of the indicators of a climatic response. Here, the authors have summarized the results of their own research over many years (1985–2023), comprising more than 500 determinations of SOC within the area of the Chernozem zone, in the south of the East European Plain (Moldova and Bessarabia, southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia), in the context of regional climate differentiation using evaluations of climatic energy consumption for soil formation. The data were structured for each of the regions through the creation of series of agrogenic soil transformations (virgin land, modern-day ploughed land (<100 years), continually ploughed land (>100 years), fallow land of the modern era (n·10 years), and post-antique long-term fallow land). It has been established, by means of statistical treatment of the data, that the intraregional differentiation of the bioclimatic conditions is the key factor determining the SOC content in the top horizon of soils in the south of the East European Plain. The comparison of the SOC content within the five variants of land use demonstrated that all the regions under study differed, with statistical significance only found in a single type of 'continually ploughed land' (>100 years). This fact reflects the leading role of the duration of agrarian loads in agropedogenesis. If the steppe Chernozems even 145 years ago had a SOC content of up to 4%, then the Chernozems in the forest-steppe zone, which used to have habitats with a SOC content of 4–7%, occupied the largest areas, and have now lost 30–40% of the original values in the 0–50 cm layer. Besides the rates of the SOC degradation, which are known and are comprehensively evaluated in the present work, the phenomenon of progradation was established in certain situations, in particular arising during the rotation regime of land use (from ploughing to fallow fields, and vice versa), which stimulated effective mechanisms of reproduction of organic substances. Thus, in one of the ancient agricultural regions, where in antiquity the land was cultivated by such ancient Greek states as Tauric Chersonesos and the European Bosporos in Crimea, post-antique long-term fallow lands possess higher SOC contents than their virgin analogues. It is not justified to consider virgin lands as absolute references for the evaluation of the humus conditions since the analysis of agrogenic series of Chernozems has corroborated an essential role of the soil organo-mineral matrix in the formation of the carbon protection capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proper fallowing of soil maintains or even improves its yield potential. The aim of this research was to compare five methods of soil protection with high production potential on the yield and quality of strategic plants. The tested methods consisted of five variants: bare fallow—BF; natural fallow—NF; fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.)—FG; a mixture of fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.) with smooth brome (Bromus inermis)—FG+SB; and smooth brome (Bromus inermis)—SB. The soil had been set aside for 9 years, after which time the fallows were terminated and the fields were cropped with winter oilseed rape, winter wheat, and spring wheat in three consecutive years. After the end of fallowing, the content of Nog. and Ctot., pH, and forms of available macro- and microelements in the soil were determined. The influence of each type of fallow on the yield of seeds/grain, straw, total protein, crude fat, and the content of macronutrients in the seeds/grain and straw of the grown crops was determined. Regarding the yields of the crops, the best solution was long-term soil protection via sowing fodder galega or a mixture of fodder galega and smooth brome. A field previously maintained as a fallow with these plants (singly or in combination) could produce over twice-as-high yields of wheat and oilseed rape as those harvested from a field established on bare fallow. The yields of the cereals and oilseed rape obtained in this study prove that food security and environmental protection issues can be reconciled. The methods for protecting farmland temporarily excluded from agricultural production presented in this paper correspond perfectly to the framework of the Green Deal for Europe. Arable land excluded from cultivation can be used to overcome new challenges facing modern agriculture.

The rapid growth of the global population has resulted in a continuous increase in cropland intensity and a shortening of the fallow period as part of the cropland rotation cycle. Yet, there is a lack of systematic knowledge on the extent of fallow lands, particularly in complex landscapes, such as the mountainous regions of China. To fill this knowledge gap, taking Yuanyang County (YYC), Yunnan Province, China, as a case study, we tested a method to identify the spatial-temporal distribution of fallow land by mapping cropland with Landsat data. The overall accuracy of land cover classification, including cropland, ranged between 90.1% and 95.8% from 1998 to 2019. The average accuracy of fallow plots was 75.7% from 2001 to 2019. The annual fallow rate varied between 8.3% and 54.3%, with an average of 20.7%. Kernel density estimated with the probability density function showed that fallow varied between 5 and 13 blocks per km2, gradually decreasing from the central area to the periphery. Increasing elevation, the low value of regional domestic products, and the increased distance to rural settlements were closely related to the higher proportions of fallow land. The approach presented here can be applied to map fallow land in other regions.

Waterlogging due to rain-fed floods is considered a natural calamity worldwide that causes lands in the north region of Bangladesh to remain underwater and uncultivable for most crops during the rainy season. This unused wasteland has immense potential for additional earnings for the marginal farmer by converting it to cultivable land through proper utilization by cultivating water chestnuts. Increasing the productivity and efficiency of water chestnut farming in these wastelands would facilitate higher food production for the growing populations. Therefore, this study estimates the farmers' profitability of water chestnut production along with technical efficiency (TE) and land use efficiency (LUE). Primary data from 150 farmers of Natore, Naogaon, and Jamalpur districts were used and stochastic frontier analysis was employed. Results reveal that no farmers had any training in water chestnut farming. Human labor and land use costs incur more than 80% of the total cost and laborers shortage was found due to skin problems working in the water. However, water chestnut farming was profitable in all districts and the average benefit–cost ratio was 1.37. TE results indicate that there was an opportunity to increase the water chestnut production by 20.2% using the same amount of inputs. LUE by the water chestnut farmers was found to be very low; hence, they were using their land inefficiently and this inefficiency was positively affected by farm size and number of family members and negatively affected by age, year of schooling, and income. The study suggests research focusing on improved management of water chestnut without affecting laborers and training to facilitate higher productivity and LUE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban areas generate high demand for urban areas to accommodate a broader range of functions associated with growth, given the rising rate of urbanization with more than two-thirds of the human population in 2050 projected to be city-dwellers. As a result, urban areas have been undergoing vigorous spatial, social, and ecological transitions. This generates a direct impact on nature, multiplicity, and the use of space. With the onset of drives focused on limiting the urbanization of space like “net zero land-take by 2050” by the European Union [11], it is evident that global authorities have realized the need to aid these spatial transitions. Such urban ecological transitions are primarily focused on territorial borders where sprawling infrastructure reservoirs and vital natural ecosystem services conflict. ‘Fallowscape’ has been seen as a tool to assist transition at peri-urban borders and form a link between brownfield and greenfield development. However, to justify the practice as a sustainable approach, there are various economic and social aspects to be accounted for, which influence the feasibility of fallow lands. Recent urban development projects (by the public as well as private sector) have seen a rise in the desirability of sustainable and ecologically sensitive approaches. Developers are keen on building dynamic environments that incorporate environmental transitions. However, with the perspective of profitability in mind, such projects often face challenges in authorization and execution. The research intends to introduce Fallowscapes as innovative practice for urban development projects, evaluating its position as a profit-driving tool by preparing an inventory of actors and ecologically sensitive parameters for urban development projects. The paper undertakes literature review of Fallowing as an ecologically sustainable practice, conducting empirical research by comparing case studies that implement Fallowscapes as an approach to market ecologically sensitive project visions.

The specific features of the soil–vegetation heterogeneity at the early stages of restorative succession have been studied. These features are determined by biotic and bioinert conditions that were influenced by anthropogenic factors during long-term plowing on azonal carbonated soils in the middle taiga subzone (Kargopol district, Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia). In total, 25 full-profile soil sections, 500 soil samples, 125 sites for counting tree and shrub species, 25 standard geobotanical plots, and 250 plots for counting herbaceous species have been studied and analyzed. During the first 15 years of restorative succession on fallow agricultural land, herbaceous vegetation has the highest phytocenotic significance. On the residual calcareous soils of the forest zone, the specialization of ecological properties, i.e., the confinement of species to certain factors is weakly pronounced only in some herbaceous species. The mosaic structure of vegetation cover on a 15-year-old fallow is determined not by the variability of soil properties and the influence of growing tree and shrub species, but by the biological properties of herbaceous plants and their specific requirements for environmental factors. Soil fertility and soil moisture are the main factors that determine the variations of vegetation at this stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveys were carried out to assess the status of soil fertility on the lands left fallowing in the steppe region and their potential reintroduction into arable rotations. In the Cherlak raion, Omsk oblast, black-meadow often salinized and salt-affected soils, saline topsoils, lowland saline soils, and saline sodic soils represent the soil deposit in the fields. The humus content in black-meadow soils containing salts from a depth of 0.5 m below the surface reached 7.26–5.20%. The values for this parameter tended to decrease to 5.88–1.55% in the salinized, salt-affected, and carbonate soils and saline topsoils. The soil sorption complex contained approximately 50% magnesium. Thus, its amount varied from 8.7 to 26.3 mmol/100 g soil at the reference of the calcium content ranging from 8.8 to 33.8 mmol/100 g soil. The sodium concentrations in soils, except the saline low-sodium sodic soils, did not exceed 5% of the cation-exchange capacity. Sodium chlorides and sulfates dominated the salt composition in the salinized soils. The soil humus layer had an increased density (1.23–1.37 g/cm3) and a satisfactory structure. The portion of the agronomically important fractions made up 52.7–68.4%. In Novovarshavka raion, the postirrigated land plot is located in a black-meadow soil area covered by the Siberian irrigation scheme. The humus content varied from 5.46 to 2.82% of soil. The humus layer of a very compact structure was weakly aggregated. The exchangeable cations, such as calcium, magnesium, and sodium, made up 14.4–30.6 mmol/100 g, 3.12–12.5 mmol/100 g, and 1.2 mmol/100 g of soil, respectively. Highly soluble salts were accumulated at depths from 50 to 71 cm below the surface. The salinity levels in the middle and lower parts of the soil profile varied from weak to very strong ranges. Weak salinity corresponded to the sodium sulfate and sulfate-sodium types, while middle, strong, and very strong salinities corresponded to the sulfate, chloride, and chloride-and-sulfate types, respectively. Reintroduction of the fallow plot located in Novovarshavka raion into the arable land system after restoring its soil physical properties is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land use has a greater influence on the contamination of soils. The current research is conducted to study the effect of different land-use patterns and soil depth on heavy metal fractions in the soil. Significant differences among heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in soils under various land use systems were observed. Variations in the soil heavy metals concentration were found dependent on land use patterns. Irrespective of the type of metal, Land uses differed for heavy metals concentrations in the order of fallow>pasture>crop>forest soils. Extracting reagents considerably varied for the concentrations of metals: HNO3>Na2EDTA>NaOH>KNO3>H2O. However, Ni concentration was found higher with NaOH than Na2EDTA. Surface soil indicated a higher magnitude of heavy metals than sub-surface soil. This study will provide valuable information on heavy metal fractions associated with land use in the Abbottabad region of lesser Himalayas, Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in the structural–aggregate state, acidity, and carbon stocks of dark-humus podbels (Luvic Albic Mollic Planosols (Epiloamic, Endoclayic, Aric)) during their postagrogenic development under unmanaged fallow were studied at the experimental station of the A.K. Chaika Federal Scientific Center of Agricultural Biotechnology of the Far East. Restoration of the aggregate state of the soil after its removal from agricultural use took place: the content of agronomically valuable aggregates increased and their weighted average diameter decreased in the former arable layer. In the course of vegetation restoration, soils were acidified. The most pronounced drop in pH took place in the 20-yr-old fallow soil with the appearance of woody plants. The content and stocks of carbon in the fallow soils tended to increase during the entire studied postagrogenic period. Carbon stocks in a layer of 0–25 cm reached their maximum by the 85th yr of the postagrogenic succession. However, the difference between carbon stocks in a layer of 0–50 cm in the 20- and 85-yr-old fallow soils was statistically insignificant. Bulk density of the plow layer in the cultivated soil reached 0.88 g/cm3. In the fallow soils, bulk density of the upper horizon varied within 0.67–0.79 g/cm3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to war conditions, the local farmers had to largely rely on their own crop production, mainly by subsistence farming, in Tigray, North Ethiopia. We assessed the crop stands in 2021 and evaluated the level of resilience of the indigenous farming system. Quantitative data were collected from 161 farm parcels in various ecoregions of this tropical mountain region, in order to detect the share of sown land, crop types, and their status. This participatory monitoring was accompanied by semi-structured interviews. Farmers cultivated their farms late, left it uncultivated or marginally sowed oil crops as improved fallow (28%), due to lack of farming tools, oxen, fertilizer, seeds, or manpower. As compared to peace years, only few lands were sown with sorghum as there was active warfare in the sorghum planting period. The relatively good stands of wheat and barley (47%) are in line with the farmers' priority given to cereals. Teff got a large land share because it could be sown up to the middle of the main rainy season and because farmers had consumed the seeds of their major cereal crops (wheat and barley) when hiding for warfare. Seeds left from consumption were only sown by late June, when troops had retreated, and the communities could revive. With almost no external support, the local farming system has proven to be remarkably resilient, relying on indigenous knowledge and local practices, block rotation, manure, improved fallow, changes in relative importance of crops, seed exchange, and support for one another. This is the first analysis of the socio-agronomic roots of the 2021–2022 Tigray hunger crisis, with a cereal harvest that could not at all sustain the local population as the planting season had been largely missed. The ability of the indigenous farming system to partially rebounce in times of autarky is another novel finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abandonment of crop production on agricultural lands for several or more years is a widespread practice not only in Europe but also around the world. Economic and political considerations lead to the abandonment of crop production on the poorest lands, although sometimes agriculturally valuable lands are also excluded from farming. Fallow land can be afforested, designated as a dedicated protection area, exposed to natural succession, or used to grow biomass for energy purposes. However, the most important role of agricultural land should be to ensure food safety. The set-aside land with high production potential should be treated in a special way. While lying fallow, the soil can have its fertility sustained or even improved considerably. To this aim, uncultivated land should be properly protected by growing a permanent cover of plant species which will have a positive influence on the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Depending on the geographical location, different plant species will have a beneficial effect on set-aside soil. Given economic and environmental considerations, the best solution is to sow a mixture of grasses and legumes, which can improve substantially the biodiversity on fallow fields, raise the soil’s fertility, ensure high CO2 sequestration ratios, and influence beneficially the soil’s nutritional status and nutrient management. Soil protection can be provided for many years with little effort. The most recent reports implicate that it is possible to achieve several economic and environmental aims simultaneously in the course of the management of land excluded from agricultural production. These aims include the improvement of biodiversity, control of greenhouse gas emissions, generation of energy, and readiness to resume production of commodity plants. Proper management of fallows corresponds well with the challenges defined in the Green Deal for Europe or the US Green New Deal.

The assessment of the micromorphological characteristics of soils is a powerful tool for studying the transformation of soils under the influence of various weathering mechanisms (physical, biogenic). The central part of Yakutia is characterized by a large area of agricultural lands, some of which has become fallow land and is subject to cryogenic processes, fires and anthropogenic impact. Under the conditions of climate change, the fallow soils of Yakutia can be re-involved in the agricultural complex. To study their state, a method of micromorphological investigation of thin soil sections is proposed. Thin sections of soils were analyzed using a polarizing microscope Leica DM750P. As a result of the work, zonal, fallow, pyrogenic and agricultural soils of the central part of Yakutia were analyzed. The soils were found to be in a degraded state. Zonal soils were characterized by the presence of quartz grains, feldspar, and undecomposed plant tissue, as well as biogenically transformed humus. Fallow soils were characterized by a thick organo-mineral (A) horizon, quartz grains, feldspar, and silty-clay plasma. Pyrogenic soils have differences from natural and fallow soils; as a result of fires and active illuviation of organo-mineral substances. The Anthrosol soils were characterized by a large number of aggregates of various sizes. In their composition there were various minerals, such as quartz, feldspar and mica. The signs of soil cryogenesis were noted only in the underlying horizons (B), while the upper horizon (A) had no signs of cryogenic transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in land management methods constantly occur, caused by natural, economic, social and demographic conditions. This paper aims to determine changes in set-asides and fallow land in Poland, in the years 1990-2020, and determine the spatial diversity of this phenomenon. The study was based on available statistical data for the studied period. The study shows that, before 2004, the share of fallow land was much more significant. After Poland acceded to the European Union, land left without cultivation decreased considerably with a simultaneous increase in the area of land used for agriculture. The results show that the share and number of hectares of fallow area decreased. The provinces of Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Opole and Wielkopolskie were characterized by the lowest percentage of fallow land in the agricultural area of the province. In contrast, the provinces of Podkarpackie, Lubuskie, Świętokrzyskie, Małopolskie, Śląskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie had the highest percentage of fallow land.

This study modelled the cropping decisions of Indian agricultural households using a nationally representative survey conducted in 2013 covering over 35,000 households with plot-level panel data on the types of crop cultivated in the two seasons (Kharif or Rabi) of a cropping year. We controlled for household-level unobserved characteristics using a fixed-effects procedure and estimated a multinomial model to determine the factors affecting choice of crop-type. We provide evidence on the 'stickiness' in the choice of cereals in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and other regions of India. The probability of a farmer switching towards non-cereal crops within the crop year was low, highlighting the challenges in crop diversification. We found that irrigated plots were less likely to be left fallow and more likely to be used for growing cereals. The probability of cultivating cereals was higher for larger plots. While our results suggest that policies promoting irrigation and the expansion of land ownership might not improve crop diversification, we also find that these measures may reduce the amount of land left fallow and hence impact food security in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of the global population has resulted in a continuous increase in cropland intensity and a shortening of the fallow period as part of the cropland rotation cycle. Yet, there is a lack of systematic knowledge on the extent of fallow lands, particularly in complex landscapes, such as the mountainous regions of China. To fill this knowledge gap, taking Yuanyang County (YYC), Yunnan Province, China, as a case study, we tested a method to identify the spatial-temporal distribution of fallow land by mapping cropland with Landsat data. The overall accuracy of land cover classification, including cropland, ranged between 90.1% and 95.8% from 1998 to 2019. The average accuracy of fallow plots was 75.7% from 2001 to 2019. The annual fallow rate varied between 8.3% and 54.3%, with an average of 20.7%. Kernel density estimated with the probability density function showed that fallow varied between 5 and 13 blocks per km2, gradually decreasing from the central area to the periphery. Increasing elevation, the low value of regional domestic products, and the increased distance to rural settlements were closely related to the higher proportions of fallow land. The approach presented here can be applied to map fallow land in other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil aggregate structure and soil organic matter are closely interrelated and commonly considered as key indicators of soil quality. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different fallow durations on indices of soil structure and humus status indicators. Studies were conducted on abandoned agricultural fields (15, 20 and, 35 years after abandonment). As a reference site, we used a cultivated field in the area. The experimental soil fields are classified as Gleyic Cambisols. Soil macroaggregates were separated with the sieve (dry sieve) to seven aggregate size fractions, i.e.> 10, 10-5, 5-2, 2-1, 1-0.5, 0.5-0.25 and < 0.25 mm. The humus status parameters of soils included the following indicators: soil organic carbon (Corg), humus reserves (QH), the degree of humification of organic matter (SOMdh), fractions of humic acids (HA) (free and bound with monovalent cations and Al2O3, Fe2O3, bound with Cа2+ which forms humates, bound with clay minerals), fulvic acids (FA) (free aggressive) and ratio of HA to FA (CHA : CFA). After a fallow period of more than 20 years on the surface formation of a sod layer. A long-term fallow period had an impact on the mean weight diameter of the aggregates (MWD) and agronomically valuable aggregates (AVA). Fallow soils have a significantly better structure than soils under a cultivated field. Long-term cultivation leads to the deterioration of soil structure and the formation of large aggregates (>10 mm). The Corg content remains at the level of the background content when the soils are left fallow for less than 15 years and increases over time. The Corg in the upper 0-20 cm soil layer has been shown to increase from 3.55 to 8.74% on arable land that has been fallow for 35 years and has been largely associated with significant accumulation of organic matter within the plant root mass. Mature sites are characterized by an increase of fulvic acids in the humus composition in comparison with their arable analogues. The abandonment of soil agricultural use and the cessation of mechanical tillage results in the restoration of the natural structure of soils and the improvement of their agrophysical properties. Such studies have not been previously conducted in the Primorsky region of the Russian Far East.

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The changes in the physical properties and carbon stocks of dark-humus podbels (Luvic Albic Mollic Planosols (Epiloamic, Endoclayic, Aric)) during long-term agricultural use and postagrogenic evolution were studied. Soil samples were taken in three trials: control (without fertilizers), high rates of mineral fertilizers, and mineral fertilizers + manure + lime (Chaika Experimental Field Station of the Federal Research Center for Agrobiotechnology of the Far East, Primorsky region) and in the abandoned fields (15, 20, and 35 years ago). It was shown that the long-term application of mineral fertilizers increases the soil bulk density. Application of organic and mineral fertilizers and lime had a positive effect on the bulk density and structural characteristics of soils. The abandonment of agricultural fields and the cessation of mechanical tillage resulted in the restoration of the natural soil structure. The content of agronomically valuable aggregates increased, while their mean weighted diameter decreased in the upper horizon of studied fallow soils. The carbon content and stock in the upper soil layer decreased in the first years of the conversion of arable fields to unmanaged fallow. The carbon stock in the upper 50-cm layer increased with time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fallowing is an important strategy for enhancing soil health, water harvesting and crop yields, thus improving sustainability and reducing production risks in dryland farming systems in Australia. However, accurate data regarding the location, frequency, extent, and duration of fallow land is not readily available at high spatio-temporal resolutions before and during a cropping season. As a result, continental maps depicting seasonal dynamics of fallow and cropping lands and their responses to climate change and human activities remain missing. This study set out to develop an automated approach to discriminate fallow areas from cropping areas within Australian broadacre cropping region. This was done by applying a mathematical algorithm of turning point detection technique to a curve fitted vegetation index time series from 2016 to 2022, derived from high spatial (10 m) and temporal (5-days) resolution Sentinel-2 data. Specifically, we aimed to derive: (i) 5-day revisit fallow/cropping map layers; (ii) key attributes of the fallow and cropping periods (e.g., start, end, duration); (iii) cropping intensity and area. The proposed approach yielded a high and significant overall accuracy, surpassing 92% with substantial balanced accuracy (>0.9) against >3000 fields for individual winter and summer seasons across Australia. In addition, this study's temporal and geographical outputs, encompassing seasonal attributes, cropping intensity and cropping areas, robustly enhanced the understanding of seasonal cropping dynamics and historical shifts in dryland farming practices. Findings derived from this analysis aligned well with extreme climatic events and changes in crop activities adopted in response to such events. Future research will aim to extract key seasonal dynamics attributes influenced by cropping practices, enhancing the conversion of high-resolution earth observation data into actionable industry knowledge. • Automated approach for detecting cropping patterns across multiple growing seasons. • Seasonal discriminability of harmonics showed significantly high accuracies. • Attributes derived included the timing, length, intensity and areas of cropping. • Outputs derived will aid industry and producers' decisions for resource planning. • Information will enhance productivity and the sustainability of agricultural land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss requirements for the multispectral remote sensing (RS) data utilized in the author's technique for estimating plant species concentration to detect arable land colonization by tree and shrubbery vegetation. The study is carried out using available high-resolution remote sensing data of two arable land plots. The paper considers the influence of resolution, combinations of spectral channels of RS data, as well as the season RS data is acquired on the quality of identification of elementary vegetation classes that form the basis of the plant community – a fallow land. A fallow land represents a piece of arable land that has not been cultivated for a long time. The study was conducted using a technology that is based on image superpixel segmentation. We found out that for determining tree and shrub vegetation, it is preferable to use RS data acquired in autumn, namely, in late September. The combination of red and blue spectral channels turned out to be the best for the analysis of tree-shrub vegetation against the background of grassy plant communities, and the presence of a near-infrared channel is necessary to range the various grassy plant communities in different classes. RS data with a spatial resolution of 2.5 m can be used to define tree-shrub plant communities with a high closeness of crowns (90 % or more), but cannot be used to classify isolated trees. Trees and shrubs (with a height of 8 m) can be classified in images with a spatial resolution of 0.8 m. An increase in spatial resolution does not improve the quality of the classification. The highest accuracies achieved for the land areas studied are 90 % and 83 %. Therefore, the suggested technology can be used in arable land expertise.

Abstract Pest rodents remain key biotic constraints to cereal crops production in the East African region where they occur, especially in seasons of outbreaks. Despite that, Uganda has scant information on rodents as crop pests to guide effective management strategies. A capture–mark–recapture (CMR) technique was employed to study the ecology of small rodents, specifically to establish the species composition and community structure in a maize‐based agro ecosystem. Trapping of small rodents was conducted in permanent fallow land and cultivated fields, with each category replicated twice making four study grids. At each field, a 60 × 60 m grid was measured and marked with permanent trapping points spaced at 10 × 10 m, making a total of 49 trapping points/grids. Trapping was conducted monthly at 4‐week interval for three consecutive days for two and half years using Sherman live traps. Eleven identified small rodent species and one insectivorous small mammal were recorded with Mastomys natalensis being the most dominant species (over 60.7%). Other species were Mus triton (16.1%), Aethomys hendei (6.7%), Lemniscomys zebra (5.2%), Lophuromys sikapusi (4.8%), Arvicanthis niloticus (0.9%), Gerbilliscus kempi (0.1%), Graphiurus murinus (0.1%), Steatomys parvus (0.1%), Dasymys incomtus (0.1%), and Grammomys dolichurus (0.1%). Spatially, species richness differed significantly (p = 0.0001) between the studied field habitats with significantly higher richness in fallow land compared with cultivated fields. Temporally, total species richness and abundance showed a significant interaction effect over the months, years, and fields of trapping with significantly (p = 0.001) higher abundances during months of wet seasons and in the first and third year of trapping. In terms of community structure, higher species diversity associated more with fallow field habitats but also with certain rare species found only in cultivated fields. Synthesis and applications. Based on these findings, management strategies can be designed to target the key pest species and the most vulnerable habitats thus reducing the impact they can inflict on field crops.

Outmigration has been considered a major issue in agricultural production of Nepal. The study aimed to assess migration and remittance status and its effect on maize production. Altogether 682, both migrated and non-migrated households were selected using proportionate random sampling from six representative districts covering four provinces and all ecological domains of Nepal. Primary data were collected through households' survey and focus group discussion using structured and pretested interview schedule. The results showed that 26 percent of households have at least one member living abroad for a job opportunity. Most of the migration was male-centric and Chitwan district ranked first among study districts on migration status. About 43 percent of households received more than two hundred thousand annually as remittance and mostly they used that money in household consumption followed by education and loan repayment. Around 54 percent of households agreed that they were using remittances in maize farming mainly for purchasing chemical fertilizer and improved seed. The use of remittance income in mechanization such as buying/using of corn sheller and power tiller was comparatively very less. The results showed insignificant maize productivity but the fallow land holdings of the migrated household were significantly higher than non-migrating households. The issue of migration and fallow land holdings in maize has become an emerging concern to development worker and policy makers. Therefore, the introduction of efficient maize production system along with value addition program that linked with market targeting youth manpower is an urgent need for effective utilization of fallow land. Moreover, such opportunity also provides an avenue to the productive investment of remittance.

The assessment of the micromorphological characteristics of soils is a powerful tool for studying the transformation of soils under the influence of various weathering mechanisms (physical, biogenic). The central part of Yakutia is characterized by a large area of agricultural lands, some of which has become fallow land and is subject to cryogenic processes, fires and anthropogenic impact. Under the conditions of climate change, the fallow soils of Yakutia can be re-involved in the agricultural complex. To study their state, a method of micromorphological investigation of thin soil sections is proposed. Thin sections of soils were analyzed using a polarizing microscope Leica DM750P. As a result of the work, zonal, fallow, pyrogenic and agricultural soils of the central part of Yakutia were analyzed. The soils were found to be in a degraded state. Zonal soils were characterized by the presence of quartz grains, feldspar, and undecomposed plant tissue, as well as biogenically transformed humus. Fallow soils were characterized by a thick organo-mineral (A) horizon, quartz grains, feldspar, and silty-clay plasma. Pyrogenic soils have differences from natural and fallow soils; as a result of fires and active illuviation of organo-mineral substances. The Anthrosol soils were characterized by a large number of aggregates of various sizes. In their composition there were various minerals, such as quartz, feldspar and mica. The signs of soil cryogenesis were noted only in the underlying horizons (B), while the upper horizon (A) had no signs of cryogenic transformation.

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Changes in the soil cover and biological properties of ordinary chernozems in the natural succession on fallow lands differing in their age have been studied in Rostov oblast. With an increase in the duration of fallowing, the species diversity of the plant cover and the humus content in soil increase, while the relative restoration rate of soil biological properties decreases. During a 83-year-long period of fallowing, the soil compaction increased, the density decreased by 15%, and pH dropped from 8.1 to 7.3. The humus content in the topmost 10 cm increased by 2.4 times and the invertase activity, by 2.3 times, while of the activities of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase became smaller. The integral index of the soil biological status on t 27- and 83-year-old fallow lands increased by 32 and 45%, respectively, in comparison with the cropland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the effects of the initial soil cultivation degree on the development of modern soil-formation processes affecting the agrochemical parameters of agro-sod-podzolic loamy soils. The effects were monitored in the course of a 4-year overgrowing period and subsequent land development resulting in the transformation of fallow lands into arable lands. The subject of this study was the plowing layer of agro-sod-podzolic loamy soils with various initial fertility levels affected by various uses. The field studies were carried out in the framework of a multiyear field experiment: in the course of three seven-field fallow–grain–grass rotation cycles, soils featuring three cultivation levels (medium, elevated, and high) have been formed. It is shown that even a short (4 years) overgrowing period causes a differentiation of the plowing layer into two subhorizons. The sod soil formation process caused by the decomposition of grassy weeds develops in the upper part of the plowing layer (0–10 cm); as a result, the organic matter content and the sum of exchangeable bases increase in this subhorizon. The zonal podzolic process affects the lower part of the plowing layer (10–20 cm); as a result, the humus content decreases, while the soil acidity increases. The elevated and high initial cultivation levels accelerate the differentiation of the postagrogenic horizon into sublayers. The plowing of the postagrogenic horizon eliminates the emerging differentiation in the very first year of the fallow land development. The plowed postagrogenic horizon differs from the plowing layer of similar agro-sod-podzolic loamy soils that were not withdrawn from active agricultural use: it features a higher acidity level and a slightly elevated organic matter content (by 0.060.10 abs. % or 3.3–4.8 rel. %). The cultivation level of the plowed horizon formed in the past years is preserved even in the fifth year of observation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dramatic loss of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes poses a substantial challenge to conservation. Losses are mainly caused by an all-pervasive intensification of agricultural management over recent decades, negatively affecting a wealth of taxa including insects. Against this background, we here set out to quantify the effects of grassland management on butterflies, comprising an important indicator and pollinator group. We recorded butterflies along 47 transects in the Westerwald mountain range, western Germany, spanning an intensification gradient ranging from grassland fallows via traditionally and intensively managed hay meadows through to silage grasslands. The numbers of species, individuals, threatened species, individuals of threatened species, and additionally α-diversity and conservation value were highest on traditionally managed grasslands followed by fallows, intensively managed grasslands, and finally silage grasslands. Comparing traditionally managed with silage grasslands, losses amounted on average to 44% of species, 58% of individuals, 75% of threatened species, and 90% of individuals of threatened species. Overall, the conservation value as an integral indicator decreased by 86%. Our study indicates a near linear decrease in biodiversity with increasing management intensity (mowing frequency, fertilization), while fallows also comprised valuable butterfly habitat. This study exemplifies the dramatic loss of insects in agricultural landscapes through intensification, and highlights the value of traditionally managed grasslands but also fallows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To identify features in natural reforestation after abandonment of land, this paper considers the current state of 21 tracts of fallow lands of the Tunka depression (Republic of Buryatia). On the basis of a geobotanical analysis, the species composition of tree and ground covers was revealed during the overgrowing of arable land on the basis of the geobotanical analysis. The landscape specificity of the main agrarian regions of the Tunka depression was reviewed, and directions for progressive successions occurring in different conditions of the functioning of geosystems were identified. By studying the dependence of demutation features on the state of the biogeocenoses surrounding the fallow lands, it was possible to single out the pine, birch, mixed and meadow varieties of vegetation after the termination of plowing. The dependence of the intensity of spread of tree undergrowth on the degree of remoteness from the forests surrounding the abandoned lands was confirmed. A decrease in overgrowth of tree species with an increase in the distance from the periphery of the deposit to its center was observed. Grazing and hay-mowing are the main factors complicating the process of reforestation. For determining the formation characteristics of the flora in the process of progressive successions, monitoring studies are appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was aimed at assessing the natural regeneration of Vitellaria paradoxa at seedling stage in order to accentuate its sustainable plantation establishment. Two land-use types (cultivated and fallow lands) and five crown shapes (round, spindle, spherical, umbrella and intermediate) were evaluated for their effects on early growth of Vitellaria seedlings. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at 5% level of significance. The results revealed that cultivated land had a higher mean value in height (19.29 cm), number of leaves (6.26) and leaf area (33.38 cm2). Land-use types and tree crown shape significantly influenced the level of carriage of the seeds by rodent pest animals with 2.6% seeds from the cultivated land while fallow land had 21.6%. For sustainable production of healthy seedlings, adequate land preparation and soil conditioning are very important for natural regeneration and early growth of the seedlings of V. paradoxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil aggregate structure and soil organic matter are closely interrelated and commonly considered as key indicators of soil quality. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different fallow durations on indices of soil structure and humus status indicators. Studies were conducted on abandoned agricultural fields (15, 20 and, 35 years after abandonment). As a reference site, we used a cultivated field in the area. The experimental soil fields are classified as Gleyic Cambisols. Soil macroaggregates were separated with the sieve (dry sieve) to seven aggregate size fractions, i.e.> 10, 10-5, 5-2, 2-1, 1-0.5, 0.5-0.25 and < 0.25 mm. The humus status parameters of soils included the following indicators: soil organic carbon (Corg), humus reserves (QH), the degree of humification of organic matter (SOMdh), fractions of humic acids (HA) (free and bound with monovalent cations and Al2O3, Fe2O3, bound with 2+ which forms humates, bound with clay minerals), fulvic acids (FA) (free aggressive) and ratio of HA to FA (CHA : CFA). After a fallow period of more than 20 years on the surface formation of a sod layer. A long-term fallow period had an impact on the mean weight diameter of the aggregates (MWD) and agronomically valuable aggregates (AVA). Fallow soils have a significantly better structure than soils under a cultivated field. Long-term cultivation leads to the deterioration of soil structure and the formation of large aggregates (>10 mm). The Corg content remains at the level of the background content when the soils are left fallow for less than 15 years and increases over time. The Corg in the upper 0-20 cm soil layer has been shown to increase from 3.55 to 8.74% on arable land that has been fallow for 35 years and has been largely associated with significant accumulation of organic matter within the plant root mass. Mature sites are characterized by an increase of fulvic acids in the humus composition in comparison with their arable analogues. The abandonment of soil agricultural use and the cessation of mechanical tillage results in the restoration of the natural structure of soils and the improvement of their agrophysical properties. Such studies have not been previously conducted in the Primorsky region of the Russian Far East. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of raw medicinal herbs is important to Russia's economy, as it covers the domestic pharmaceutical industry's demand for medicinal herbs. Retrospective analysis of medicinal herb farming and harvesting shows that this sector in its current state-of-the-art relies on self-organization alone and is unable to address the emerging challenges and to improve its profitability. Addressing these challenges and increasing the production of medicinal herb material would require effective state regulation of enterprises in the sector, as well as finding land plots suitable for the environmentally safe cultivation of medicinal herbs. The world today is showing an ever-greater interest in medicinal plants because they have beneficial effects on the human body while also being widely applicable in many industries. Despite intensive high-tech advancement, demand for medicinal herbs is on the rise. In Russia, like in many other countries, access to medicinal herb material is a strategic priority of the public policy, as it covers at least three critical policy aspects: national security, health, and agroindustrial complex development. Besides, as the government strategizes upon import substitution in the light of economic sanctions, domestic production of medicinal raw materials has become even more relevant. Medicinal herb materials are a strategic resource and the basis of medications that enable the people to stay healthy and viable. They are reproduced by collecting wild medicinal herbs, as well as by agricultural farming. The former is an environmentally friendlier and less costly way; however, wild plants are depletable, enable no labor optimization, and have uncontrollable qualitative and quantitative properties. The goal hereof is to create an organizational mechanism to boost agricultural farming of medicinal herbs in environmentally prosperous regions of Russia using fallow land for such farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]