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Greased bearings in electric motors (EMs) are subject to a wide range of operational requirements and corresponding micro-environments. Consequently, greases must function effectively in these conditions. Here, the tribological performance of four market-available EM greases was characterized by measuring friction and wear of silicon nitride sliding on hardened 52100 steel. The EM greases evaluated had similar viscosity grades but different combinations of polyurea or lithium thickener with mineral or synthetic base oil. Measurements were performed at a range of temperature and surface roughness conditions to capture behavior in multiple lubrication regimes. Results enabled direct comparison of market-available products across different application-relevant metrics, and the analysis methods developed can be used as a baseline for future studies of EM grease performance.

Reducing friction losses is one of the most common ways to improve fluid film bearings, whose adjustable design provides additional opportunities to improve their dynamic and tribological properties. Previous studies have shown the possibility of reducing viscous friction in actively lubricated bearings by adjusting the rotor position. This work provides a theoretical justification for the mechanism of this effect for the cases of purely laminar lubricant flows in journal bearings. The operating modes connected with the transition to turbulent phenomena and the occurrence of Taylor vortices are beyond the scope of this paper. Conditions that ensure the minimization of friction losses in hydrodynamic and hybrid bearings with hydrostatic parts are determined based on the equations describing viscous friction in a fluid film. In non-adjustable plain hydrodynamic bearings, the minimum of friction is achieved with the centered shaft position that is actually unstable due to the resulting forces configuration. In actively lubricated hybrid bearings, a further reduction in viscous friction is possible by combining film thickness and pressure distributions. Recombining them, along with adjustment of the shaft position, allows the optimization of the distribution of shear stresses in the fluid film. As a result, the shear stresses caused by the rotation of the shaft can be partially compensated by the stresses caused by the pressure gradient, reducing the torque-resisting rotation. In addition, additional benefits can be obtained in the minimum friction state by the reduced lubricant flow and power losses to its pumping. A series of numerical calculations for elliptical, 3-, and 4-lobe bearings show that non-circular bores provide additional variability in film thickness distribution and a premise for optimizing the bearing tribological parameters. Four-lobe bearing demonstrated the best ability for reducing viscous friction among the considered designs. The results obtained can be used as a basis for further optimization of the geometry of fluid film bearings of both active and passive designs by reducing power losses due to viscous friction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid bearings integrating an external pressurizing source are widely used in high-speed turbomachinery due to their notable advantages, including low friction and wear, enhanced reliability and durability, and accurate rotor positioning, as well as large static stiffness and load carry capacity even lubricated with low viscosity liquids. This paper reports experimental data and predictions to identify the characteristics of pneumatic hammer of hybrid gas bearings, 60 mm in diameter, with increasing feed gas pressures. Pneumatic hammer characteristics with static load stiffnesses and flow rates of the test bearing are recorded for increasing static loads with various shaft center positions. A computational program for modeling of hybrid gas bearings predicts static load characteristics of the test bearings. Predictions show a remarkable agreement with measurements. Comparisons of measurements and predictions reveal that calculated reduced damping factors and damping coefficients of hybrid bearings, relying on volume ratio between recess and fluid film, are reliable indicators to estimate the onset condition of pneumatic hammer instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing friction losses is one of the most common ways to improve fluid film bearings, whose adjustable design provides additional opportunities to improve their dynamic and tribological properties. Previous studies have shown the possibility of reducing viscous friction in actively lubricated bearings by adjusting the rotor position. This work provides a theoretical justification for the mechanism of this effect for the cases of purely laminar lubricant flows in journal bearings. The operating modes connected with the transition to turbulent phenomena and the occurrence of Taylor vortices are beyond the scope of this paper. Conditions that ensure the minimization of friction losses in hydrodynamic and hybrid bearings with hydrostatic parts are determined based on the equations describing viscous friction in a fluid film. In non-adjustable plain hydrodynamic bearings, the minimum of friction is achieved with the centered shaft position that is actually unstable due to the resulting forces configuration. In actively lubricated hybrid bearings, a further reduction in viscous friction is possible by combining film thickness and pressure distributions. Recombining them, along with adjustment of the shaft position, allows the optimization of the distribution of shear stresses in the fluid film. As a result, the shear stresses caused by the rotation of the shaft can be partially compensated by the stresses caused by the pressure gradient, reducing the torque-resisting rotation. In addition, additional benefits can be obtained in the minimum friction state by the reduced lubricant flow and power losses to its pumping. A series of numerical calculations for elliptical, 3-, and 4-lobe bearings show that non-circular bores provide additional variability in film thickness distribution and a premise for optimizing the bearing tribological parameters. Four-lobe bearing demonstrated the best ability for reducing viscous friction among the considered designs. The results obtained can be used as a basis for further optimization of the geometry of fluid film bearings of both active and passive designs by reducing power losses due to viscous friction.

A previously published rolling bearing life model that separates the surface and subsurface survival is briefly summarised. The model is applied to the case of hybrid bearings and discussed with regard to a selected set of application examples. Ball hybrid bearings under equal load condition show 12% higher Hertzian stress than all-steel bearings. However, field applications, typically under light load, poor lubrication and contamination, show that hybrid bearings have longer fatigue life than all-steel bearings. Traditional all-steel life models fail to predict this type of behaviour. In this paper, it is shown that hybrid bearing unique fatigue performance can be described using the idea of separation of surface and subsurface survival. The model applies the classical rolling contact fatigue in the subsurface region of the rolling contact while a newly developed tribologically dependent surface degradation models is used for the ceramic-steel raceway interface. It is found that the particular fatigue resistance of the ceramic-steel interface of the hybrid bearing raceway can, in most cases, compensate for the additional stress present in the subsurface region of the contact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greased bearings in electric motors (EMs) are subject to a wide range of operational requirements and corresponding micro-environments. Consequently, greases must function effectively in these conditions. Here, the tribological performance of four market-available EM greases was characterized by measuring friction and wear of silicon nitride sliding on hardened 52100 steel. The EM greases evaluated had similar viscosity grades but different combinations of polyurea or lithium thickener with mineral or synthetic base oil. Measurements were performed at a range of temperature and surface roughness conditions to capture behavior in multiple lubrication regimes. Results enabled direct comparison of market-available products across different application-relevant metrics, and the analysis methods developed can be used as a baseline for future studies of EM grease performance.

Bearings experience one of the most severe mechanical loading of all machine elements. The contact stresses engendered are highly localised and bound to a very small volume of the material. The aim of this study was to investigate how localised stresses influence the damage mechanism in hybrid contact. Cyclic contact loading of a gas pressure sintered silicon nitride (GPSN) was investigated. Silicon nitride disks and tungsten carbide (WC) indenters were tested under different media, initially at “application relevant” low contact pressures (4–6 GPa) and further on, to accelerate damage, at high contact pressures (10–15 GPa). The low load experiments showed various forms of surface damage with no significant difference between dry and lubricated contact. Whereas, the high load experiments showed different damage behaviour under unlubricated and lubricated conditions. Unlubricated contact resulted in the formation of transfer layers and Hertzian cracks on the silicon nitride surface whereas, damage under lubricated contact was mainly dominated by grain removal and delayed crack formation. Finite element simulations were carried out to study the stress state under different loading conditions. The FEM results indicated that the combination of surface tensile and shear stresses predominantly influence the fatigue damage observed in the experiments rather than fluctuating tensile stresses only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In high performance hybrid bearings the balls are conventionally made of silicon nitride ceramics. There are some disadvantages such as costs or the higher stiffness of silicon nitride compared to steel. Therefore, alternative materials are under investigation. The surface strength is one of the most important criteria for the qualification of the spherical components in the application. It has to be evaluated for each new material (or new surface finish). The recently standardised Notched Ball Test (NBT) enables one to determine the surface strength (tensile strength) of balls, which is strongly influenced by the surface finish and volume flaw populations. In this paper the NBT strength of five candidate materials for rolling elements (silicon carbide, silicon nitride, alumina, zirconia and zirconia toughened alumina) is investigated. Fractography is performed to evaluate the direct correlation between the defects found at the surface and the measured strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the experimental research on ball bearings, which could be applied in vapour microturbines operating in CHP systems. The bearings are of three kinds, according to their constructional solution: 1. all-steel (all components are made of steel); 2. ceramic-steel-hybrid (ceramic balls, steel cage and races); 3. all-ceramic (the balls, as well as external and internal races, are made from ceramic silicon nitride - Si3N4, while the cage is made of PTFE). The test rig and the research method were discussed. In order to have a better picture of vibrations of the rotor-bearing system, we applied the bearing system with a flexible rotor. That option entailed some difficulties, however. In each case, both the analysis of the ball bearings' properties and of the impact of ceramic components on the dynamic performance of the rotor was carried out. The results of these analyses are presented in the following forms: displacement amplitudes of the rotor, colormap graphs of the type Order Spectrum Analysis and three-dimensional vibration trajectories. The bearings were analysed on the basis of colormap graphs, while the analysis of the rotating rotor was conducted using graphs depicting 3D vibration trajectories and displacement amplitudes at the disk location. As a result of all this work that we have mentioned, useful information on the possible application of tested bearings for vapour microturbines has been gained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrodynamic bearings exploit repulsive forces due to eddy currents to produce positive stiffness by passive means. Such a feature would make this type of bearing a viable alternative to active and permanent magnet bearings. Although electrodynamic bearings do not violate Earnshaw’s theorem, the open issue remains the stabilization system that is needed to make the rotating body stable, due to the low rotational speeds. Stabilizing solutions proposed in the literature are partially effective and not totally convincing. This limits real industrial applications.The present paper proposes a combination of electrodynamic and active magnetic bearings. At low speed the active part behaves as a conventional active magnetic bearing, while at high speed it provides damping. The readiness of the proposed solution is demonstrated by experimental results obtained using a dedicate test rig. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the damage mechanisms in silicon nitride rolling elements used in hybrid (ceramic–metal) bearings that operate under non-conformal contact. To get an insight into the prevailing damage modes compared to the real application, a rolling contact experiment was designed to mimic the contact conditions. Hertzian contact pressures ranged from 3.0 to 5.9 GPa (500–4150 N). In order to approach pure rolling, the experiments were run without inducing any gross slip. Extensive surface and subsurface damage analysis was performed using conventional ceramography as well as FIB cross-sectioning. Finite element simulations were carried out to illustrate the stress state prevailing under different loading conditions. Surface damage to rollers subjected to contact pressures up to 5.1 GPa (2500 N) was mainly dominated by micro-spalling, which was induced due to the presence of snowflake structures. At the highest applied loads, damage appeared as a combination of macro-cracking and micro-spalling. Crack propagation was attributed to different mechanisms: (a) fatigue-induced fracture and (b) lubricant-driven crack propagation in the subsurface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid bearings—that is, bearings with ceramic rolling elements and steel rings—are often used in applications with reduced (i.e., boundary or mixed) lubrication conditions. The mechanisms by which hybrid bearings perform significantly better than full-steel ones in these cases are so far unclear, although a number of published works have shown experimental results in which appreciable performance benefits were obtained by the use of hybrid bearings under boundary or mixed lubrication. In this article, the reduced lubrication performance of hybrid rolling contacts, versus full-steel ones, is studied in detail by means of rolling bearing fatigue experiments and a theoretical micropitting model. It is found that the large improvement in surface fatigue resistance of hybrid contacts cannot be explained solely on the basis of the unavoidable differences in some of the roughness parameters existing between the full-steel and hybrid contacts. It is also necessary to take into account a considerable reduction in the effective boundary friction coefficient of the hybrid contact. In the numerical micropitting simulations it was found that the boundary friction coefficient of a hybrid contact must be about two times lower than that for the corresponding full-steel contact, in order to be able to predict the experimental observations reasonably well. A similar ratio of the boundary friction coefficients was obtained in a number of dedicated tests, thus confirming the results of the micropitting model. The mechanisms of the strong micropitting resistance of hybrid bearings under reduced lubrication conditions are discussed in detail, shedding new light on the operational tribology and performance capabilities of bearings with rolling elements made of silicon nitride ceramics. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Hydrodynamic Rolling Hybrid Bearing (HRHB) is dual bearings combination where a hydrodynamic bearing and a rolling bearing with a clearance are assembled coaxially and side by side. The clearance of rolling bearing is a significant parameter for HRHBs. This paper aims to investigate the vibration characteristics of rotor supported by HRHBs to determine the permissible value of clearance of rolling bearing. The maximum dynamic eccentricity ratio is proposed based on the noninterference conditions of rolling bearing and rotor. Then an evaluation method of the maximum dynamic eccentricity ratio is developed. This paper also investigates the effects of the operation parameters such as rotational speed, perturbed force and structure parameters such as bearing span, diameter of rotor, and overhanging length on the maximum dynamic eccentricity ratio. The maximum dynamic eccentricity ratio on the front rolling bearing section is obviously larger than that on the back rolling bearing section. Moreover, the maximum dynamic eccentricity ratio reduces with the increase of the rotational speed and diameter of rotor, but increases with the augmentation of the perturbed force, bearing span, and overhanging length. When the maximum dynamic eccentricity does not go beyond the bound of the radius of the rolling bearing’s clearance circle, the rolling bearing does not interfere with the rotor. The paper provides theoretical basis for design of the minimum value of the rolling bearing’s clearance in HRHBs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: A new tensile strength test for ceramic rollers (cylinders) is presented, following the idea of the previously published and since that time standardized notched ball test. The specimen is prepared by cutting a long narrow notch along the symmetry plane of the roller, perpendicular to the end faces. By applying compressive forces perpendicular to the notch, tensile stresses are induced in the outer surface region of the roller opposite to the notch, mainly pointing in tangential direction with respect to the roller axis. The stress amplitude is proportional to the applied force and depends also on the test geometry and the Poisson’ ratio, which has been analyzed carefully with FE methods. Strength tests have been performed on two different qualities of commercial silicon nitride rollers of 10mm diameter and length. According to their specification a significant difference in the strength has been obtained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The “Surface Crack in Flexure” method is widely used for fracture toughness (K Ic) determination of ceramics. In part I of the paper we developed the theoretical fundamentals to apply this procedure to ceramic balls by using the stress application as developed for the so-called “Notched ball test”. The new test (SCF-NB) can be used to test spherical components without the need to cut out special specimens such as bending bars. In this work the practical part is presented including suggestions for crack introduction and specimen preparation and possible measurement errors are discussed. It is concluded that a measurement error less than ±5% is possible. Experiments on balls and bars made from the same silicon nitride ceramic indicate that SCF-NB delivers the same K Ic-values as standardised measurements on bars. Additionally, K Ic-values obtained for silicon carbide, alumina and zirconia ceramics are presented. They coincide with K Ic-data from the literature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A hydrodynamic rolling hybrid bearing (HRHB) composed of a rolling bearing with a fixed clearance and a hydrodynamic bearing is developed to solve the wear problem in hydrodynamic bearings. In this study, the maximum eccentricity ratio is developed to assess the protection of the rolling bearing offers to the hydrodynamic bearing. An analytic model for the maximum eccentricity ratio is presented. The effects of the size of the ball bearing and cylindrical roller bearing on the maximum eccentricity ratio are investigated. The results show that the maximum eccentricity ratio is affected by the clearance constraint and contact deformation of the rolling bearing. The maximum eccentricity ratio presents itself at zero speed, at which the rolling bearing reaction is equal to the external load. The results also show that the type of rolling bearing has significant effects on the maximum eccentricity ratio. The increment of the maximum eccentricity ratio due to elastic deformation of ball bearings is about 8.6 times the increment due to elastic deformation of cylindrical roller bearings. In comparison, the size of the rolling bearing of the same type has a slight influence on the maximum eccentricity ratio. The maximum eccentricity ratio is a key parameter related to antiwear. When the maximum eccentricity ratio is smaller than the allowable value of the hydrodynamic bearing, direct contact between the hydrodynamic bearing and rotor can be avoided and the wear in the hydrodynamic bearing can thus be prevented by the rolling bearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrodynamic bearings are subjected to wear during starts and stops due to the absence of sufficient film pressure to effect complete separation of the sliding surfaces. In an earlier publication, our group reported the development of a new hydrodynamic rolling hybrid bearing (HRHB) to overcome the wear problem in hydrodynamic bearings. In the configuration, the transition of operation modes between the rolling bearing supporting state and the hydrodynamic bearing supporting state was realized by the clearance of the rolling bearing. Here we report on the development of a method to identify the operation modes for HRHBs based on monitoring the cage speed of the rolling bearing. The variation of cage speed with the shaft speed is measured. The effects of external load and starting time on the cage speed are also investigated experimentally. The results show that variation in the cage speed reflects changes in the load on the rolling bearing, as well as the operation modes of the HRHBs. With increases in the shaft speed, the variation in the cage speed presents three stages: the increasing stage, the decreasing stage, and the stationary stage. In the first two stages, the HRHB works at the rolling bearing supporting state while in stationary stage, the HRHB works at the hydrodynamic bearing supporting state. In additions to its property of no wear sufferance during starts and stops, compared to hydrodynamic bearings there is little risk of catastrophic failure with HRHBs during any interruption to the lubricant supply and compared to rolling bearings there is no fatigue failure. Therefore this hybrid design is useful at very high speeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: It is the intention of this paper to propose a compact flywheel energy storage system assisted by hybrid mechanical-magnetic bearings. Concepts of active magnetic bearings and axial flux PM synchronous machine are adopted in the design to facilitate the rotor–flywheel to spin and remain in magnetic levitation in the vertical orientation while the translations and rotations along and about x and y axes are constrained by mechanical bearings for simple operation. In this paper, the mathematical model of the flywheel’s levitation force and rotational torque is developed. The control systems of the position and velocity of the flywheel are designed based on PID method. Experiments are carried out and its test results prove the feasibility of the proposed flywheel system concept, the correctness of the mathematical analysis and the validity of the designed control system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word "keramikos," which means fired clay. The materials we use in our daily life such as porcelain plates, tiles, pots, food storage pots are all made of ceramics. Industrial ceramics were started to be used in the middle of 19 century technically. Production of modern ceramics (called technical ceramics, industrial ceramics, advanced technical ceramics, high technology ceramics) was achieved when high temperatures were reached industrial furnaces. Due to their good physical and chemical properties they are widely used in electronics, chemical, automotive and bio-medical industry and they provide solutions for the problems in different fields. Light materials are preferred and important in defence and automotive industry. Due to their superior properties and advantages industrial ceramics are substituting metallic structural materials in these days. And day by day they are widely used in different fields of industry. Industrial ceramic goods are increased by a factor of ten in the market in a period of ten years between years of 1998 to 2008. In this article, use of industrial ceramic materials as ball bearings and plain bearings is examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The possibility of suppressing critical speeds by using electromagnetic actuators (EMAs) is assessed experimentally in this paper. The system studied is composed of a horizontal flexible shaft supported by two ball bearings at one end and one roller beating that is located in a squirrel cage at the other end. Four identical EMAs supplied with constant current are utilized. The EMAs associated to the squirrel cage constitutes the hybrid bearing. Results obtained, show that the constant current, when applied to the EMAs, produces a shift of the first critical speed toward lower values. Moreover, the application of constant current for a speed interval around the critical speed enables a smooth run-up or run-down without crossing any resonance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Uncertainty analysis and parametric studies are presented for estimating the fatigue failure probability of surface cracks in silicon nitride ball bearings subjected to rolling contact fatigue. Uncertainty quantification of input parameters are presented first based on experimental data, inspection capability, and geometric reasoning. Surrogate models for equivalent stress intensity factors are then used for uncertainty propagation, which are built upon high fidelity finite element modeling with half-penny-shaped surface cracks. Instead of black-box type surrogate modeling, physical observations are employed to decompose the high dimensional surrogate model into multiple one-dimensional models. The cross-validation technique is used to find the best surrogate that has the smallest prediction variance. The probability of failure is estimated using Monte Carlo simulation and surrogate models. The parametric studies show that reducing the maximum crack size (by limiting inspection threshold) and increasing the fatigue threshold (by improving fracture toughness of a material) are the most effective ways of reducing the probability of failure. For example, decreasing the maximum crack size by 4.4% and increasing the lowest fracture threshold by 2.8% results in the reduction of probability of failure by 40%. Ball survivability increases with decreasing ball diameter, for a given peak Hertzian stress. In order to apply the current study to hybrid ball bearing design, the survivability results are generalized through non-dimensionalization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A novel mechanical test has been developed to measure the fracture toughness of the silicon-nitride (Si3N4) balls used in modern hybrid bearings. The ball is compressed diametrally between two hemispherical conforming dies, which causes the ball's equator to bulge, generating a tensile hoop stress. Under applied load, a precrack placed at the equator grows. To calculate the ball's fracture toughness at crack instability, finite-element calculations of the applied stress field and an analytical solution for the stress intensity factor are used in the ‘two point plus semiellipse’ method. Tests of 16 Si3N4 balls and three soda-lime glass balls gave fracture toughness measurements in good agreement with accepted published values. The new technique appears to be more accurate than the indentation technique used to measure the toughness of ceramics. As future work, the test can be extended to measure fatigue and stress corrosion properties for Si3N4 balls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A new apparatus was designed and built for the finishing of large size/large batch silicon nitride (Si3N4) balls by magnetic float polishing (MFP) technology for hybrid bearing applications. The polishing chamber is so designed that during polishing it can self-align with the upper part of the polishing chamber connected to the spindle. In situ machining of the upper part of the chamber is performed on the machine tool in which the apparatus is located, in order to achieve high accuracy and geometric alignment of the system. The finishing methodology consists of mechanical polishing followed by chemo-mechanical polishing. Boron carbide (B4C), silicon carbide (SiC), and cerium oxide (CeO2) are the three abrasives used in this investigation. Three stages are involved in polishing, namely, 1. a roughing stage to remove maximum material without imparting any damage to the surface, 2. an intermediate stage of semi-finishing to control the size and improve sphericity, and 3. a final finishing stage to obtain best surface finish and sphericity while maintaining the final diameter. Taguchi method was applied for the roughing stage to optimize the polishing conditions for the best material removal rate. Level average response analysis has indicated that a load of 1.5N/ball, an abrasive concentration of 20%, and a speed of 400rpm would give a high material removal rate using B4C (500 grit) abrasive. A groove is formed on the bevel of the upper part of the chamber which plays different roles, some beneficial and other not so beneficial, in each stage. In the roughing stage, it is preferable, though not essential, to machine the groove after each run to maintain high material removal rates. It is, however, necessary to remove the groove formed at the end of the roughing stage. In the intermediate or semifinishing stage, sphericity can be significantly improved by not machining the groove. Thus groove, in this case, facilitates in the improvement of sphericity. Before the beginning of the final finishing stage, machining the groove is necessary for rapid improvement in the surface finish. A batch of 46, 3/4 in. Si3N4 balls was finished to a final diameter of 0.7500 in. with an average sphericity of ∼0.25μm (best value of 0.15μm) and an average surface finish, Ra of ∼8nm (best value of 6.7nm) with an actual polishing time of <30h. This technology is easy to implement in industry and does not entile high capital investment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Herringbone grooves machined into aerodynamic bearings are well known to produce improvements in bearing stiffness and stability at high operating speeds. In this investigation the effect of herringbone grooves on the performance of an externally pressurized bearing is examined. A mathematical model based on previous research has been developed and used to optimize the design of an air bearing suitable for use in ultrahigh-speed machining spindles. Experimental results show the spindle to run satisfactory at speeds in excess of 3.0 × 106 DN (bearing diameter in mm × shaft speed in r/min), being limited only by the maximum speed of its drive rotor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greased bearings in electric motors (EMs) are subject to a wide range of operational requirements and corresponding micro-environments. Consequently, greases must function effectively in these conditions. Here, the tribological performance of four market-available EM greases was characterized by measuring friction and wear of silicon nitride sliding on hardened 52100 steel. The EM greases evaluated had similar viscosity grades but different combinations of polyurea or lithium thickener with mineral or synthetic base oil. Measurements were performed at a range of temperature and surface roughness conditions to capture behavior in multiple lubrication regimes. Results enabled direct comparison of market-available products across different application-relevant metrics, and the analysis methods developed can be used as a baseline for future studies of EM grease performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Different types of controllable journal bearings are listed and described. • Various applications of controllable bearings are mentioned. • A comparison between passive and controllable bearings was made. • Advantages and disadvantages of controllable bearings are presented. • Possible directions of the future development of controllable bearings are indicated. Controllable/active bearings are mainly associated with active magnetic bearings (AMBs), whereas active bearing control is also found in many types of bearings, e.g. fluid, gas and hybrid bearings. The article presents a review of the literature describing the structure and results of studies of active bearings. Active control brings a number of benefits resulting in the fact that their use as a support for rotors becomes increasingly common. This article introduces readers to the different methods of controlling radial bearings and provides detailed information on various technical solutions. Furthermore, the paper presents the characteristics of bearings as well as the basic advantages, disadvantages and possibilities offered by active control of various types of bearings. The influence of active control on rotor dynamics as well as on bearing friction, temperature control, permissible operating time, the environment (possibility of using safer lubricants) and operating safety is presented. The final part of the article presents possible directions of development of active bearings (ABs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ceramic rolling elements of hybrid bearings may initially include surface imperfections. In order to provide reliable operation of a bearing, the criticality of such imperfections under rolling contact fatigue is examined by defining them as Star features: intersecting semi-elliptical surface cracks. Parametric study is conducted using Finite Element Method and discussed with help of previously published experimental observations. The effects of the Star feature morphology and configuration, contact pressure and crack face friction are investigated in terms of stress intensity factors. Possible crack propagation scenarios are explained in the present study. • Artificial imperfection in ceramics mimicking surface defect is modelled by FEM. • Risk of crack propagation is assessed in rolling and sliding point contact. • Conditions similar to rolling contact fatigue tests are examined numerically. • Mechanisms of crack propagation are explained by Fracture Mechanics and experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]