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Background: The distance from the patient is a crucial factor in the communication with patients. The distance between patients and pharmacists varies depending on several factors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between comfort distance and patients' physical condition and mood by measuring this distance at a chemotherapy center. Methods: A total of 114 patients were surveyed regarding their physical condition and mood. The distance at which the patients were best able to talk to the pharmacists was measured. For comfort distance measurement, the pharmacists were instructed to approach or move away from the patients. Results: The correlation between physical condition, mood, and comfort distance was examined in both male and female patients, and no significant correlation was found; however, there was a strong correlation between physical condition and mood in female patients. We looked at correlations by further dividing patients into those over and under 65 years of age and found a slight correlation with comfort distance in women under 65. They tended to shorten the distance when they felt well and lengthen the distance when they felt not well. Conclusions: No correlation was found between physical condition or mood and comfort distance in male or female. A slight correlation was observed when age was included; however, the results were not satisfactory. By directly measuring the distance in actual patients, we obtained an actual measurement of the comfort distance that synthesized the patient's condition and various backgrounds during chemotherapy, providing a foothold for future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Conduct disorders are associated with deficits in interpersonal behaviour. Both, callous-unemotional traits and social anxiety are often elevated in patients with conduct disorder and are associated with aggressive approach or disproportional avoidance. Previous studies have focused mainly on questionnaire reports of interpersonal behaviour, whereas direct explicit and implicit interpersonal behaviour in social contexts has not been considered sufficiently. Therefore, explicit and implicit interpersonal behaviour were investigated in children and adolescents with conduct disorder in the current study. Methods: Forty male adolescent inpatients with conduct disorder and 30 typically developing controls (Mage = 12.5, SD = 1.39) took part in a virtual reality task in which they approached virtual agemates, displaying different facial expressions under the pretext of a cover story while interpersonal distance and walking speed were assessed (indirect condition). In addition, they were asked to move to a comfortable distance for conversation toward the agent (direct condition). Callous-unemotional traits and social anxiety were assessed via questionnaires. Results: In the indirect condition, no differences between the groups emerged. In the direct condition, typically developing children adjusted their interpersonal distance to the respective expression that the virtual classmate displayed. They showed significantly greater interpersonal distances to angry classmates than to happy classmates. In contrast, conduct disorder patients' interpersonal distance, did not differ between emotions. Interpersonal distance preferences were also associated with social anxiety and callous-unemotional traits. Conclusion: The findings suggest that conduct disorder patients fail to adjust their interpersonal behaviour to the facial expression of social interaction partners and that this is associated with social anxiety and callous-unemotional traits. A lack of adjustment to social cues might contribute to and maintain problems with peers in individuals with conduct disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies report a preference for larger comfortable interpersonal distance (CIPD) in individuals with child maltreatment (CM) when being approached by others. Yet, research on approaching others, as opposed to being approached, as well as on potential effects of social anxiety and depression is lacking. We investigated if CM and depressive symptoms influence CIPD and if social anxiety mediates the possible association of CM and CIPD when approaching a female stranger. One hundred ten participants with CM (CM) and 58 participants without CM (non‐CM) experiences performed the stop‐distance paradigm and stopped first when feeling uncomfortable (D1) and again when feeling very uncomfortable (D2). CM experiences were associated with a preference for larger CIPD, independent of depressive symptoms. All CM subtypes were associated with a larger D2. The relationship between CM and CIPD was partially mediated by social anxiety. These novel findings can help to develop interventions strengthening socially relevant skills and processes in those affected by CM, targeting alterations in social anxiety and depression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mirror game (MG) is an exercise in which participants imitate each other. Our study explored its spontaneous behavioral consequences after performance. In a baseline (BL) phase, two participants performed a joint Simon task. Then, they performed a lure task during which we measured the interpersonal distance they spontaneously adopted. The BL phase was followed by two phases (in counterbalanced order). The MG phase started with a MG, before a procedure like the BL phase. The individual movement (IM) phase started with movements performed alone before a procedure like the BL phase. Interpersonal distance analysis suggested that MG enhanced spontaneous approach toward the partner, whereas IM induced spontaneous avoidance. Moreover, the joint Simon effect (JSE) tended to be smaller after IM, suggesting a decreasing inclination to integrate the partner's response in one's own action plan. Furthermore, in IM phase, JSE decreased as interpersonal distance increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal Distance (IPD) is defined as the physical distance that individuals maintain between themselves and others during social interactions. While literature has extensively focused on this everyday social behavior, how IPD changes throughout the lifespan remains an open question. In this study, 864 participants, aged 3–89 years, performed the Stop Distance Paradigm in their real-life environments, and we measured the distance they kept from both familiar and unfamiliar others during social interactions. We found that IPD not only differs based on the identity of the other person (familiar versus unfamiliar) but critically declines as a function of age, following two distinct non-linear trends for familiar and unfamiliar others. Moreover, behavioral variability also undergoes a lifetime development, with IPD becoming more stable as age increases. Overall, the present study suggests that IPD is a complex and acquired behavior that changes throughout the lifespan and varies according to individual and situational variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The distance from the patient is a crucial factor in the communication with patients. The distance between patients and pharmacists varies depending on several factors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between comfort distance and patients' physical condition and mood by measuring this distance at a chemotherapy center. Methods A total of 114 patients were surveyed regarding their physical condition and mood. The distance at which the patients were best able to talk to the pharmacists was measured. For comfort distance measurement, the pharmacists were instructed to approach or move away from the patients. Results The correlation between physical condition, mood, and comfort distance was examined in both male and female patients, and no significant correlation was found; however, there was a strong correlation between physical condition and mood in female patients. We looked at correlations by further dividing patients into those over and under 65 years of age and found a slight correlation with comfort distance in women under 65. They tended to shorten the distance when they felt well and lengthen the distance when they felt not well. Conclusions No correlation was found between physical condition or mood and comfort distance in male or female. A slight correlation was observed when age was included; however, the results were not satisfactory. By directly measuring the distance in actual patients, we obtained an actual measurement of the comfort distance that synthesized the patient's condition and various backgrounds during chemotherapy, providing a foothold for future studies.

Abstract Background and objectives Conduct disorders are associated with deficits in interpersonal behaviour. Both, callous-unemotional traits and social anxiety are often elevated in patients with conduct disorder and are associated with aggressive approach or disproportional avoidance. Previous studies have focused mainly on questionnaire reports of interpersonal behaviour, whereas direct explicit and implicit interpersonal behaviour in social contexts has not been considered sufficiently. Therefore, explicit and implicit interpersonal behaviour were investigated in children and adolescents with conduct disorder in the current study. Methods Forty male adolescent inpatients with conduct disorder and 30 typically developing controls (M age = 12.5, SD = 1.39) took part in a virtual reality task in which they approached virtual agemates, displaying different facial expressions under the pretext of a cover story while interpersonal distance and walking speed were assessed (indirect condition). In addition, they were asked to move to a comfortable distance for conversation toward the agent (direct condition). Callous-unemotional traits and social anxiety were assessed via questionnaires. Results In the indirect condition, no differences between the groups emerged. In the direct condition, typically developing children adjusted their interpersonal distance to the respective expression that the virtual classmate displayed. They showed significantly greater interpersonal distances to angry classmates than to happy classmates. In contrast, conduct disorder patients’ interpersonal distance, did not differ between emotions. Interpersonal distance preferences were also associated with social anxiety and callous-unemotional traits. Conclusion The findings suggest that conduct disorder patients fail to adjust their interpersonal behaviour to the facial expression of social interaction partners and that this is associated with social anxiety and callous-unemotional traits. A lack of adjustment to social cues might contribute to and maintain problems with peers in individuals with conduct disorder.

Abstract Interpersonal Distance (IPD) is defined as the physical distance that individuals maintain between themselves and others during social interactions. While literature has extensively focused on this everyday social behavior, how IPD changes throughout the lifespan remains an open question. In this study, 864 participants, aged 3–89 years, performed the Stop Distance Paradigm in their real-life environments, and we measured the distance they kept from both familiar and unfamiliar others during social interactions. We found that IPD not only differs based on the identity of the other person (familiar versus unfamiliar) but critically declines as a function of age, following two distinct non-linear trends for familiar and unfamiliar others. Moreover, behavioral variability also undergoes a lifetime development, with IPD becoming more stable as age increases. Overall, the present study suggests that IPD is a complex and acquired behavior that changes throughout the lifespan and varies according to individual and situational variables.

Estimating the time until impending collision (time-to-collision, TTC) of approaching or looming individuals and maintaining a comfortable distance from others (interpersonal distance, IPD) are commonly required in daily life and contribute to survival and social goals. Despite accumulating evidence that facial expressions and gaze direction interactively influence face processing, it remains unclear how these facial features affect the spatiotemporal processing of looming faces. We examined whether facial expressions (fearful vs. neutral) and gaze direction (direct vs. averted) interact on the judgments of TTC and IPD for looming faces, based on the shared signal hypothesis that fear signals the existence of threats in the environment when coupled with averted gaze. Experiment 1 demonstrated that TTC estimates were reduced for fearful faces compared to neutral ones only when the concomitant gaze was averted. In Experiment 2, the emotion-gaze interaction was not observed in the IPD regulation, which is arguably sensitive to affective responses to faces. The results suggest that fearful-averted faces modulate the cognitive extrapolation process of looming motion by communicating environmental threats rather than by altering subjective fear or perceived emotional intensity of faces. The TTC-specific effect may reflect an enhanced defensive response to unseen threats implied by looming fearful-averted faces. Our findings provide insight into how the visual system processes facial features to ensure bodily safety and comfortable interpersonal communication in dynamic environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The study investigated interpersonal distance in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), focussing on the role of other's facial expression and morphology, also assessing physiological and subjective responses. Method: Twenty‐nine patients with AN and 30 controls (CTL) were exposed to virtual characters either with an angry, neutral, or happy facial expression or with an overweight, normal‐weight, or underweight morphology presented either in the near or far space while we recorded electrodermal activity. Participants had to judge their preferred interpersonal distance with the characters and rated them in terms of valence and arousal. Results: Unlike CTL, patients with AN exhibited heightened electrodermal activity for morphological stimuli only, when presented in the near space. They also preferred larger and smaller interpersonal distances with overweight and underweight characters respectively, although rating both negatively. Finally, and similar to CTL, they preferred larger interpersonal distance with angry than neutral or happy characters. Discussion: Although patients with AN exhibited behavioural response to emotional stimuli similar to CTL, they lacked corresponding physiological response, indicating emotional blunting towards emotional social stimuli. Moreover, they showed distinct behavioural and physiological adjustments in response to body shape, confirming the specific emotional significance attached to body shape. Highlights: Patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) show a regulation of interpersonal distances to social emotional stimuli similar to healthy controls (CTL) but lack the corresponding physiological response.Patients with AN, not CTL, prefer shorter interpersonal distance with underweight social stimuli and larger interpersonal distance with overweight ones and show increased physiological response to both of them.Patients with AN show a bias towards morphological rather than emotional cues when processing information to optimise social interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple self-experiment allows for the measurement of individual pedestrian movements, aiming to understand the deviations from intended directions seen in heterogeneous human crowds. The method involves pedestrian self-observations using the GPS sensor of a smartphone, providing a unique perspective on individual behavior within a crowd and offering a means to evaluate average pedestrian speed. The study is focused on individual mobility in the context of a heterogeneous crowd rather than the behavior of a crowd composed of similar types of people. With this study, an important contribution to the understanding of interpersonal distances in heterogeneous crowds is made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During times of distress, the attachment system stimulates individuals to seek reassurance through closeness. Previous research suggests that attachment avoidance, but not attachment anxiety, is associated with larger preferred and estimated interpersonal distance. Although several studies exist investigating interpersonal distance during the COVID-19 pandemic, no research to date included the association with attachment style. This experimental study adds to previous research by examining the association between attachment styles and interpersonal distance during a genuine (social) threat, i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic, also examining the role of the intimacy level of the relationship with another person and who was in control of the approaching movement. A sample of 168 Dutch participants (aged 18–71 years) completed questionnaires and performed a computerized task to measure interpersonal distance estimations and distancing preferences during the COVID-19 pandemic with its social distancing measures. A computerized adaptation of the distance-closeness paradigm with two conditions (being approached and approaching) was used. Participants were asked to assess 6 scenarios, varying in the level of intimacy of the relationship, both from a current and retrospective pre-pandemic perspective. As expected, attachment avoidance was associated with larger interpersonal distance estimations and preferences. Contrary to our hypotheses, we found no associations for attachment anxiety, even though a real threat was present. Participants preferred greater distances in the being approached condition. Furthermore, preferred distances were larger during the pandemic than they were imagined pre-pandemic. The results of this study further support the previously found associations between attachment avoidance and interpersonal distancing behavior. Regarding attachment anxiety, further research could explore potential conflicting interests between suppressed self-needs for interpersonal closeness and presumed needs of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The visual processing differences seen in autism often impede individuals' visual perception of the social world. In particular, many autistic people exhibit poor face recognition. Here, we sought to determine whether autistic adults also show impaired perception of dyadic social interactions—a class of stimulus thought to engage face‐like visual processing. Our focus was the perception of interpersonal distance. Participants completed distance change detection tasks, in which they had to make perceptual decisions about the distance between two actors. On half of the trials, participants judged whether the actors moved closer together; on the other half, whether they moved further apart. In a nonsocial control task, participants made similar judgments about two grandfather clocks. We also assessed participants' face recognition ability using standardized measures. The autistic and nonautistic observers showed similar levels of perceptual sensitivity to changes in interpersonal distance when viewing social interactions. As expected, however, the autistic observers showed clear signs of impaired face recognition. Despite putative similarities between the visual processing of faces and dyadic social interactions, our results suggest that these two facets of social vision may dissociate. Lay Summary: The visual processing differences seen in autism often impede individuals' visual perception of the social world. It has recently been suggested that pairs of individuals shown facing each other—so‐called "facing dyads"—engage a form of visual processing similar to that recruited by faces. Given that many autistic people experience difficulties when asked to identify faces, we reasoned that autistic individuals may also make less accurate judgments about facing dyads. We examined whether groups of autistic and nonautistic participants differed in their ability to judge interpersonal distance—a key visual feature of facing dyads. Contrary to our hypothesis, the autistic and nonautistic participants displayed similar ability to detect changes in interpersonal distance. As expected, however, our autistic participants showed worse face recognition than our nonautistic participants. These findings suggest that the visual processing of faces may be selectively impaired in autism without affecting the perception of facing dyads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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During the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), many jurisdictions around the world introduced a "social distance" rule under which people are instructed to keep a certain distance from others. Generally, this rule is implemented simply by telling people how many metres or feet of separation should be kept, without giving them precise instructions as to how the specified distance can be measured. Consequently, the rule is effective only to the extent that people are able to gauge this distance through their space perception. To examine the effectiveness of the rule from this point of view, this study empirically investigated how much distance people would leave from another person when they relied on their perception of this distance. Participants (N = 153) were asked to stand exactly 1.5 m away from a researcher, and resultant interpersonal distances showed that while their mean was close to the correct 1.5 m distance, they exhibited large individual differences. These results suggest that a number of people would not stay sufficiently away from others even when they intend to do proper social distancing. Given this outcome, it is suggested that official health advice include measures that compensate for this tendency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The size and regulation of personal space are reportedly atypical in autistic individuals. As personal space regulates social interaction, its developmental change is essential for understanding the nature of social difficulties that autistic individuals face. Adolescence is an important developmental period in which social relationships become complex. We conducted a three-year longitudinal study of interpersonal distances in autistic and typically developing (TD) individuals aged 12–18 years at Time 1 and 15–21 years at Time 2. Their preferred interpersonal distances were measured when an experimenter approached the participants with and without eye contact. The interpersonal distances of autistic individuals were shorter than those of TD individuals at both Time 1 and Time 2. Furthermore, the interpersonal distances of autistic individuals at Time 1 and Time 2 were highly correlated, but no such correlation was found in TD individuals. The results suggest that the interpersonal distances of autistic individuals are stable and that the shorter preferred interpersonal distances in autistic individuals compared to those of TD individuals are maintained during adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and hypothesis: Schizophrenia is often associated with severe difficulties in social functioning, resulting in increased isolation and subsequent loneliness. Interpersonal distance – the amount of space around an individual's body during social interaction – can signal such difficulties. However, little is known about how individuals with schizophrenia regulate their interpersonal distance during social encounters. Summarizing the current empirical findings of interpersonal distance regulation in schizophrenia can bring novel perspectives for understanding interpersonal difficulties observed in this clinical population. This systematic review examined empirical studies indexed in Web of Science and PubMed based on a-priori-defined criteria. 1164 studies were screened with the final review consisting of 14 studies. They together included 1145 adult participants, of whom 668 were diagnosed with schizophrenia or psychotic disorder. The studies clearly showed that patients maintain greater interpersonal distances than do controls. Furthermore, a larger distance was linked to more severe positive and negative symptoms. More specifically, the link to symptoms was more pronounced when patients were being approached by someone else during interactions. On a neurobiological level, the increased activity and functional connectivity of the dorsal inferior parietal sulcus and increased subjective state-dependent stress are further indicated as being potentially related to increase interpersonal distancing in schizophrenia. We provided information about the aberrant modulation of interpersonal distance in schizophrenia. Studies showed substantial heterogeneity in tasks used to measure interpersonal distance. Future studies should look at links to social functioning, underlying neurobiology, and neuroendocrinal regulation of interpersonal space in schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Since COVID-19 is easily transmitted among people in close physical proximity, the focus of epidemiological policy during the COVID-19 crisis included major restrictions on interpersonal distance. However, the way in which distance restrictions affected spatial perception is unclear. In the current study, we examined interpersonal distance preferences and perceptions at three time points: pre-pandemic, early post-pandemic, and late post-pandemic. The results indicate that following the pandemic outbreak, people perceived others as farther away than they actually were, suggesting that the distance restrictions were associated with an enlargement of perceived interpersonal distance. Interestingly, however, people maintained the same distance from one another as before the outbreak, indicating no change in actual distance behavior due to the risk of infection. These findings suggest that COVID-19 was associated with a change in the way distance is perceived, while in practice, people maintain the same distance as before. In contrast, COVID-related anxiety predicted both a preference for maintaining a greater distance and a bias toward underestimating perceived distance from others. Thus, individuals who were highly fearful of COVID-19 perceived other people to be closer than they actually were and preferred to maintain a larger distance from them. The results suggest that subjective risk can lead to an increased perception of danger and a subsequent change in behavior. Taken together, even when behaviors should logically change, the decision-making process can be based on distorted perceptions. This insight may be used to predict public compliance.

The interpersonal distance (IPD) theory provides a novel approach to studying autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this article, we present recent findings on the neurobiological underpinnings of IPD regulation that are distinct in individuals with ASD. We also discuss the potential influence of environmental factors on IPD. We suggest that different IPD regulation may have implications for cognitive performance in experimental and diagnostic settings, may influence the effectiveness of training and therapy, and may play a role in the typical forms of social communication and leisure activities chosen by autistic individuals. We argue that reconsidering the results of ASD research through the lens of IPD would lead to a different interpretation of previous findings. Finally, we propose a methodological approach to study this phenomenon systematically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research on interpersonal distance (IPD) has predominantly concentrated on specific nationalities or population groups within their respective regions. There is a dearth of studies investigating IPD differences among individuals of distinct nationalities coexisting in the same geographical location. This study aimed to examine the variances in IPD between 100 young Taiwanese participants (comprising 50 males and 50 females) and 100 Southeast Asian individuals (including 50 males and 50 females). This study also considered factors affecting IPD, including target genders and mask-wearing conditions. The results of the four-way ANOVA indicate that target gender and mask-wearing conditions had a significant impact on IPD (p < 0.001). While there were no significant main effects for region and participant gender, there was a noteworthy interactive effect between these two variables on IPD. In general, Southeast Asian participants exhibited lower sensitivity to changes in IPD in response to the independent variables in comparison to their Taiwanese counterparts; in certain instances, their IPD did not notably increase when confronted with targets not wearing masks. While prior research typically indicated that women tend to maintain larger IPD than men, the current study observed this gender difference only among young Taiwanese participants. However, such a gender gap was absent among young individuals from Southeast Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Interpersonal distance (IPD), which reflects the physical space between people, ensures the regulation of social behavior in interaction as part of nonverbal communication. Our research aims to reveal whether there is a difference in personal distance preference between individuals with hearing loss and normal hearing (NH). Methods Thirty-five adults (26.54 ± 7.05 years) were divided into three groups according to hearing status: hearing aid (HA) users, cochlear implant (CI) users, and NH individuals. The preferred interpersonal distance scale (PIPDS) and a stop distance paradigm were employed for measurements in various environments. Personal space violations were monitored using an electrodermal activity (EDA) wristband. Results Our findings showed a significant relationship between preferred interpersonal distance (PID) and hearing loss duration (r = 571; p

A simple self-experiment allows for the measurement of individual pedestrian movements, aiming to understand the deviations from intended directions seen in heterogeneous human crowds. The method involves pedestrian self-observations using the GPS sensor of a smartphone, providing a unique perspective on individual behavior within a crowd and offering a means to evaluate average pedestrian speed. The study is focused on individual mobility in the context of a heterogeneous crowd rather than the behavior of a crowd composed of similar types of people. With this study, an important contribution to the understanding of interpersonal distances in heterogeneous crowds is made.

Collaboration is a critical skill in everyday life. It has been suggested that collaborative performance may be influenced by social factors such as interpersonal distance, which is defined as the perceived psychological distance between individuals. Previous literature has reported that close interpersonal distance may promote the level of self-other integration between interacting members, and in turn, enhance collaborative performance. These studies mainly focused on interdependent collaboration, which requires high levels of shared representations and self-other integration. However, little is known about the effect of interpersonal distance on independent collaboration (e.g., the joint Simon task), in which individuals perform the task independently while the final outcome is determined by the parties. To address this issue, we simultaneously measured the frontal activations of ninety-four pairs of participants using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-based hyperscanning technique while they performed a joint Simon task. Behavioral results showed that the Joint Simon Effect (JSE), defined as the RT difference between incongruent and congruent conditions indicating the level of self-other integration between collaborators, was larger in the friend group than in the stranger group. Consistently, the inter-brain neural synchronization (INS) across the dorsolateral and medial parts of the prefrontal cortex was also stronger in the friend group. In addition, INS in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex negatively predicted JSE only in the friend group. These results suggest that close interpersonal distance may enhance the shared mental representation among collaborators, which in turn influences their collaborative performance.

In our daily lives, we spontaneously or passively make various social comparisons. In terms of the abilities that are closely linked to our lives, how interpersonal distance affects outcome evaluation in an ability-based social comparison context is largely unknown. In the current study, we used a 2 interpersonal distance × 2 self-outcome × 2 other-outcome within-participant factorial design to investigate how interpersonal distance affects the processing of accuracy outcomes and monetary reward outcomes in social comparison from a temporal processing perspective (N = 25, Mage = 19.84, 52% female). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured while the participants performed a dot estimation task with a friend and with a stranger. Regarding behavioral level, the participants were more satisfied when they received positive outcomes and preferred positive outcomes for the friend over the stranger. Regarding ERP level, the effect of interpersonal distance on the processing of judgment accuracy outcomes in social comparison was reflected in the FRN and P300. Specifically, whether the participants were paired with a friend or a stranger, the FRN was larger for other-incorrect than for other-correct in the self-incorrect condition. Only when a participant was paired with a stranger was the FRN larger for stranger-incorrect than for stranger-correct in the self-correct condition. Additionally, the P300 was larger when the participants received the same outcomes as the strangers. Overall, our findings suggest that interpersonal distance moderates the evaluation of social comparison outcomes. Even in a noncompetitive context, individuals tend to compare themselves to strangers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trustworthiness judgments of faces play an important role in social interactions. Although previous studies indicate facial judgments can be modulated by some additional information (such as behavioral history), few studies have paid attention to the effect of interpersonal distance on trustworthiness judgments of faces. Interpersonal distance is a critical proxy of interpersonal relationship and motivation. The current study aimed to examine whether imagined interpersonal distance with or without a physical distance cue (image size) could modulate facial trustworthiness judgments. In a series of four experiments, the current study shows that faces are judged as more trustworthy as the imagined interpersonal distance increases. More importantly, it is the first to show that imagined interpersonal distance has a larger effect on facial evaluations than does image size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interpersonal distance (IPD), which reflects the physical space between people, ensures the regulation of social behavior in interaction as part of nonverbal communication. Our research aims to reveal whether there is a difference in personal distance preference between individuals with hearing loss and normal hearing (NH). Methods: Thirty-five adults (26.54 ± 7.05 years) were divided into three groups according to hearing status: hearing aid (HA) users, cochlear implant (CI) users, and NH individuals. The preferred interpersonal distance scale (PIPDS) and a stop distance paradigm were employed for measurements in various environments. Personal space violations were monitored using an electrodermal activity (EDA) wristband. Results: Our findings showed a significant relationship between preferred interpersonal distance (PID) and hearing loss duration (r = 571; p <.01) and a significant difference in PIDs between CI users and NH individuals (p =.025). There was a correlation between PIPDS results and interpersonal distance preference in two outdoor conditions where the experimenter was male. However, there was no correlation between interpersonal distance and EDA results. Conclusions: For the CI group, PIPDS results indicated an increased interpersonal distance preference with the severity of hearing loss, possibly to enhance lip-reading cues and conceal visible hearing aids. Understanding these preferences is essential for effective communication and good interpersonal relationships among individuals with hearing loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The frequent occurrences of cyberbullying on social platforms have sparked a great deal of social conflict, and bystander intervention plays a crucial role in preventing the escalation of cyberbullying. This research examines the impact of victim self-disclosure on bystander intervention in cyberbullying through two experimental studies. The studies collected data from March to July of 2022, utilizing a convenience sampling approach to recruit university students as experiment participants. Study 1 recruited 247 valid participants, while Study 2 recruited 522 eligible participants. The results of Study 1 indicate that the perceptible dimensions (frequency, privacy, and valence) of victim self-disclosure impact bystander intervention. Specifically, in a low privacy context, positive self-disclosure increases bystander intervention, while negative self-disclosure does the opposite. The results of Study 2 suggest that the valence of self-disclosure affects bystander intervention through the mediation of victim blaming, with interpersonal distance moderating the impact of victim self-disclosure valence on the extent of victim blaming. This moderated mediation model clarifies the psychological process by which the valence of victim self-disclosure affects bystander intervention. The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of the social psychological process behind bystander intervention, providing a scientific basis and pathway for reducing cyberbullying and fostering a harmonious online environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The psychological mechanisms that high and low altruists exhibit in different contexts remain unknown. This study examined the underlying mechanisms of the effect of altruistic personality, social observation, and interpersonal distance on prosocial behavior using event-related potentials (ERPs). Participants with high and low altruism were asked to make prosocial or non-prosocial choices toward different interpersonal distances (friends, acquaintances, or strangers) under the (non)observer condition. The electrophysiological responses to the choice stimuli were simultaneously recorded. The behavioral results demonstrated that high altruists had more prosocial choices, and these choices were unaffected by interpersonal distance and social observation. However, low altruists made more prosocial choices toward friends and acquaintances under the observer than nonobserver conditions, whereas their prosocial choices toward strangers showed no difference. The ERP results demonstrated that low altruists showed more negative N2 when the choice stimuli were toward strangers and acquaintances or under the nonobserver condition. Furthermore, low altruists showed larger P3 under the observer than nonobserver conditions when the choice stimuli were toward friends and acquaintances, while this difference was absent when the choice stimuli were toward strangers. However, for high altruists, no effect of interpersonal distance and social observation was observed in N2 and P3. These results suggest that the prosocial behavior of low altruists is mainly driven by reputational incentives, whereas high altruists are primarily motivated by concern about the well-being of others. Our findings provide insights into the prosocial behavior of high and low altruists in different contexts and support the empathy-altruism hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social interactions are often shaped by the space we prefer to maintain between us and others, that is, interpersonal distance. Being too distant or too close to a stranger can often be perceived as odd, and lead to atypical social interactions. This calibration of appropriate interpersonal distance thus constitutes an important social skill. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD, hereafter autism) often experience difficulties with this skill, and anecdotal accounts suggest atypical interpersonal distances in their social interactions. In the current study, we systematically measured interpersonal distance in individuals with autism using immersive virtual reality (IVR) to recreate a naturalistic interaction with a full body avatar of a similar age. Participants observed their own virtual body in first‐person perspective, and the other avatar in two tasks: in the first task, they approached the other avatar (active), in the second one they were approached by the other avatar (passive). Two groups of neurotypical and autistic adults, performed both tasks. Autistic adults showed greater interpersonal distance when compared to non‐autistic adults. Additionally, the difference between the passive and active conditions was smaller for non‐autistic compared to autistic adults. Across the full sample, greater interpersonal distance was associated with higher autism‐related traits. This study provides systematic evidence for greater interpersonal distance in autistic adults using a paradigm with high ecological validity and can be useful in informing the design of appropriate environmental adjustments for shared spaces. Lay Summary: Social interactions are often shaped by the space we prefer to maintain between us and others, that is, interpersonal distance. We used immersive virtual reality to measure interpersonal distance, where participants either approached or were approached by a virtual character. All participants preferred larger interpersonal distances when they were approached versus when they approached themselves. Autistic adults preferred a larger interpersonal distance compared to non‐autistic adults. These results can inform the design of appropriate environments (e.g., public spaces) for autistic individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an immersive virtual environment, it was investigated how the perception of body kinetics contributes to social distance behavior when the facial expression and other physical properties of a social interaction partner cannot be perceived. Based on point light displays, both the subject and the social interaction partner were depicted as stick figures, both moving simultaneously in the same space. In addition, the effects of relevant psychological factors of the perceiver on social distance behavior were examined. The results were consistent with those from studies with facial expressions or realistic full-body interactants. A greater distance was maintained from characters with emotionally negative expressions of body kinetics. Stationary objects stimuli, which were also included in the study, were mostly passed closer than neutral agents. However, the results are not entirely clear and require further investigation. Depressive symptom burden and factors mainly related to anxiety and avoidance showed effects on social distance in an IVE. The CID, a test often used to assess the interpersonal distance at which a person is comfortable, correlated with that overt behavior. In summary, the results of the study provide experimental evidence that the perception of body kinetics has a similarly significant influence on the regulation of social distance as, for example, facial affect. Implementing this study in real life would be incredibly complex, if not impossible. It is interesting to see that the comparatively simple method used in this study to create and operate an immersive virtual environment turned out to be suitable for studying at least simple types of social behavior based on body movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background During the COVID-19 pandemic people were asked to keep interpersonal distance, wash their hands and avoid gatherings of people. But, do people understand how much a change of the distance to a virus infected person means for the exposure to that person’s virus? To answer this question, we studied how people perceive virus exposure from an infected person at different distances and lengths of a conversation. Method An online questionnaire was distributed to 101 participants drawn from the general US population. Participants judged perceived virus exposure at different interpersonal distances to an infected person in a face to face conversation of different lengths of time. A model based on empirical and theoretical studies of dispersion of particles in the air was used to estimate a person’s objective virus exposure during different times and distances from a virus source. The model and empirical data show that exposure changes with the square of the distance and linearly with time. Results A majority (78%) of the participants underestimated the effects on virus exposure following a change of interpersonal distance. The dominating bias was assuming that exposure varies linearly with distance. To illustrate, an approach to a virus source from 6 to 2 feet was judged to give a 3 times higher exposure but, objectively it is 9 times. By way of contrast, perceptions of exposure as a function of the duration of a conversation were unbiased. The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV2 virus is likely to be followed by other pandemics also caused by airborne Corona or other viruses. Therefore, the results are important for administrators when designing risk communications to the general public and workers in the health care sector about social distancing and infection risks. Conclusions People quite drastically underestimate the increase in virus exposure following an approach to a virus infected person. They also overestimate exposure after a move away from an infected person. For public health reasons, the correct function connecting distance with virus exposure should be communicated to the general public to avoid deliberate violations of recommended interpersonal distances.

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected not only public health but also people's daily lives. Among various strategies to prevent infection, mask wearing and vaccination are considered to be the most effective methods; however, they may affect the comfortable interpersonal distance (IPD) for social interactions. In 2023, although the COVID-19 epidemic is considered to be similar to influenza, the public health sector of Taiwan still plans to give each person at least one dose per year, and even two does for special cases such as the elderly; and more than 90% of Taiwanese are still accustomed to wearing masks in public areas. Compared with mask wearing, studies examining the effects of vaccination on IPD are lacking. Therefore, an online survey was conducted in this study to collect the IPD data of 50 male and 50 female participants to elucidate the effects of mask wearing, vaccination, and target sex variables on IPD. The results showed that all variables significantly affected IPD (all p < 0.001). The effect of masks on IPD (49.1 cm) was slightly greater than that of vaccination (43.5 cm). The IPDs reported for wearing and not wearing masks were 145.7 and 194.8 cm, respectively, and those for vaccinated and unvaccinated were 148.5 and 192.0 cm, respectively. Regardless of participant sex, the IPDs for the female targets were significantly shorter than those for the male targets, which was consistent with the results of previous studies. Although mask wearing and vaccination are functionally different in nature, the findings indicate that the effects of both on IPD are nearly identical, jointly shortening IPD to approximately 93 cm. This implies that not only masks but also vaccination could lead to the shortening of IPD and may cause challenges in the prevention and control of COVID-19 transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this study was to capture expert taekwondo coaches' experiential knowledge regarding critical factors that underpin the roundhouse kick. The secondary aim was to explore the coaching–biomechanics interface and translate the coaches' knowledge into observable biomechanical variables for future investigation. The final aim was to elicit further expert knowledge to assess the usefulness of the resulting variables. Six higher themes emerged from interviews involving four coaches: (1) hip flexibility, (2) balance, (3) control/coordination, (4) distance, (5) footwork and (6) speed. These were supported by several sub-themes. The authors translated each theme and sub-themes into biomechanical variables: (1) front knee height, (2) support foot balance, (3) foot velocity, (4) interpersonal distance and (5) cut-kick transition speed. Two separate expert coaches appraised these variables in terms of understanding, importance, coachability and differences in expertise. In attempting to translate expert knowledge to biomechanical variables, we supported the need for a common conceptualisation of knowledge between scientists and coaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The robot ‘Lometh’ is an information-presenting robot that naturally interacts with people in a supermarket environment. In recent years, considerable effort has been devoted to the implementation of robotic interfaces to identify effective behaviors of communication robots focusing only on the social and physical factors of the addresser and the hearer. As attention focus and attention target shifting of people differs based on the human visual focus and the spatiality, this study considered four interactive regions, considering the visual focus of attention as well as the interpersonal space between robot and human. The collected primary data revealed that 56% attention shifts occurred in near peripheral field of view regions and 44% attention shifts in far peripheral field of view regions. Using correspondence analysis, we identified that the bodily behaviors of the robot showed the highest success rate in the left near peripheral field of view region. The verbal behaviors of the robot captured human attention best in the right near peripheral field of view region. In this experiment of finding a socially acceptable way to accomplish the attention attracting goals of a communication robot, we observed that the robots’ affective behaviors were successful in shifting human attention towards itself in both left and right far- peripheral field of view regions, so we concluded that for far field of view regions, designing similar interaction interventions can be expected to be successful.

Today we are experiencing a hybrid real-virtual society in which the interaction with virtual humans is normal and "quasi-social". Understanding the way we react to the interaction with virtual agents and the impact of emotions on social dynamics in the virtual world is fundamental. Therefore, in this study we investigated the implicit effect of emotional information by adopting a perceptual discrimination task. Specifically, we devised a task that explicitly required perceptual discrimination of a target while involving distance regulation in the presence of happy, neutral, or angry virtual agents. In two Immersive Virtual Reality experiments, participants were instructed to discriminate a target on the virtual agents' t-shirts, and they had to provide the response by stopping the virtual agents (or themselves) at the distance where they could identify the target. Thus, facial expressions were completely irrelevant to the perceptual task. The results showed that the perceptual discrimination implied a longer response time when t-shirts were worn by angry rather than happy or neutral virtual agents. This suggests that angry faces interfered with the explicit perceptual task people had to perform. From a theoretical standpoint, this anger-superiority effect could reflect an ancestral fear/avoidance mechanism that prompts automatic defensive reactions and bypasses other cognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal distance plays an important role in human social interaction. With the increasing usage of virtual reality in social interaction, people's interpersonal distance in virtual space attracts great attention. It remains unclear whether and to what extent human‐required interpersonal distance is altered by crowded virtual scenes. In this study, we manipulated crowd density in virtual environments and used the classical stop‐distance paradigm to measure required interpersonal distances at different crowd densities. We found that people's required interpersonal distance decreased with increased social crowdedness but not with physical crowdedness. Moreover, the decrease of two types of interpersonal distance was associated with the globally averaged crowd density rather than local crowd density. The reduction is not due to the imitation of other virtual humans in the crowd. Moreover, we developed a model to describe the quantitative relationships between the crowdedness of the environment and the required interpersonal distance. Our finding provides insights into designing user‐friendly virtual humans in metaverse virtual worlds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immersive virtual technology has been widely used to modulate sociocognitive processes, such as changing individuals’ implicit attitudes towards specific groups. As to measure the effect, the implicit association test (IAT) is the most used one. However, IAT itself is controversial for its construct validity and commonly requires participants to quit virtual environments (VEs) to complete. Here, we propose an alternative paradigm, the “interpersonal distance paradigm”, which measures attitudes using interpersonal distance and can be conducted in VEs. We conducted a user study measuring weight stigma to compare the effectiveness of the interpersonal distance paradigm with two classical paradigms: the questionnaire and IAT. Results revealed a floor effect in the questionnaire method and no significant correlation between the two classic paradigms. The measurement of interpersonal distance showed a weak positive correlation with the questionnaire score, but not with IAT score. In future research, the results of more measurement methods should be combined to obtain more accurate results to better evaluate this new paradigm’s validity. The accurate results can help quantify the effects of the programs aiming at reducing weight stigma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The robot 'Lometh' is an information-presenting robot that naturally interacts with people in a supermarket environment. In recent years, considerable effort has been devoted to the implementation of robotic interfaces to identify effective behaviors of communication robots focusing only on the social and physical factors of the addresser and the hearer. As attention focus and attention target shifting of people differs based on the human visual focus and the spatiality, this study considered four interactive regions, considering the visual focus of attention as well as the interpersonal space between robot and human. The collected primary data revealed that 56% attention shifts occurred in near peripheral field of view regions and 44% attention shifts in far peripheral field of view regions. Using correspondence analysis, we identified that the bodily behaviors of the robot showed the highest success rate in the left near peripheral field of view region. The verbal behaviors of the robot captured human attention best in the right near peripheral field of view region. In this experiment of finding a socially acceptable way to accomplish the attention attracting goals of a communication robot, we observed that the robots' affective behaviors were successful in shifting human attention towards itself in both left and right farperipheral field of view regions, so we concluded that for far field of view regions, designing similar interaction interventions can be expected to be successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal distance (IPD) refers to the distance naturally maintained during social interactions, while peripersonal space (PPS) refers to the immediate space surrounding the body, or the space within reaching distance. Previous research has preliminarily indicated that IPD is associated with body image disturbances. We sought to expand extant literature by exploring associations between aspects of positive and negative body image, IPD, and PPS. Seventy-five women from the United Kingdom aged 18–40 years completed measures of body appreciation, body image flexibility, body shame, body surveillance, and body dissatisfaction. IPD boundaries were estimated using a lab-based comfort-distance task, whereas PPS boundaries were estimated using an audio-tactile reaction-time task. Measures of body acceptance by others and fear of negative evaluation were completed as potential mediators. Overall, we identified positive associations between IPD, body surveillance, and fear of negative evaluation, with no statistically significant associations identified between the other indices. The association between active IPD and body surveillance was mediated by fear of negative evaluation, even after controlling for demographic factors. These findings suggest a nuanced relationship between IPD and body image-related factors, highlighting the role of social evaluation anxiety. Future investigations should use experimental designs to further understand these relationships and their implications. • Interpersonal distance (IPD) is the distance maintained during social interactions. • IPD was positively associated with body surveillance and fear of negative evaluation. • IPD was negatively associated with body acceptance by others. • Fear of negative evaluation mediated relationships between IPD and body surveillance. • Peripersonal space was not associated with positive or negative body image. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research on interpersonal distance (IPD) has predominantly concentrated on specific nationalities or population groups within their respective regions. There is a dearth of studies investigating IPD differences among individuals of distinct nationalities coexisting in the same geographical location. This study aimed to examine the variances in IPD between 100 young Taiwanese participants (comprising 50 males and 50 females) and 100 Southeast Asian individuals (including 50 males and 50 females). This study also considered factors affecting IPD, including target genders and mask-wearing conditions. The results of the four-way ANOVA indicate that target gender and mask-wearing conditions had a significant impact on IPD (p < 0.001). While there were no significant main effects for region and participant gender, there was a noteworthy interactive effect between these two variables on IPD. In general, Southeast Asian participants exhibited lower sensitivity to changes in IPD in response to the independent variables in comparison to their Taiwanese counterparts; in certain instances, their IPD did not notably increase when confronted with targets not wearing masks. While prior research typically indicated that women tend to maintain larger IPD than men, the current study observed this gender difference only among young Taiwanese participants. However, such a gender gap was absent among young individuals from Southeast Asia.

The frequent occurrences of cyberbullying on social platforms have sparked a great deal of social conflict, and bystander intervention plays a crucial role in preventing the escalation of cyberbullying. This research examines the impact of victim self-disclosure on bystander intervention in cyberbullying through two experimental studies. The studies collected data from March to July of 2022, utilizing a convenience sampling approach to recruit university students as experiment participants. Study 1 recruited 247 valid participants, while Study 2 recruited 522 eligible participants. The results of Study 1 indicate that the perceptible dimensions (frequency, privacy, and valence) of victim self-disclosure impact bystander intervention. Specifically, in a low privacy context, positive self-disclosure increases bystander intervention, while negative self-disclosure does the opposite. The results of Study 2 suggest that the valence of self-disclosure affects bystander intervention through the mediation of victim blaming, with interpersonal distance moderating the impact of victim self-disclosure valence on the extent of victim blaming. This moderated mediation model clarifies the psychological process by which the valence of victim self-disclosure affects bystander intervention. The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of the social psychological process behind bystander intervention, providing a scientific basis and pathway for reducing cyberbullying and fostering a harmonious online environment.

IntroductionTelepresence robots (TPRs) are the subject of an emerging field of application and research that has recently received attention from various disciplines. Most of the relevant research has been done in computer science, while the interest from psychology and education has been relatively modest. Proximity plays an important role in personal interactions. Although human spatial behavior has been widely studied in social psychology, little attention has been paid to the spatial behavior of humans and TPRs.MethodsThe purpose of this paper is to present the results of a pilot study that investigated a certain aspect of spatial behavior – physical proximity or interpersonal distance – based on four social zones of interpersonal distance that characterize Western culture: intimate, personal, social, and public. The study conducted an experiment involving participants both in person and via TPRs, using the Double 3 TPRs in various simulated situations.ResultsAccording to the findings, when interacting with a TPR, most participants maintained a communication distance of 60 to 160 cm, which is the borderline between personal and social distance, quite similar to normal human-to-human social communication. Status and previous relationship did not play any role in the choice of communication distance, but there were significant gender differences. On average, male participants chose a shorter distance to interact with TPRs compared to female participants. Persons with previous computer gaming experience chose a significantly shorter communication distance compared to persons with no such experience. A little more than half of the participants found the method of communication through TPRs to be pleasant.DiscussionTPR mediated persons might be perceived as “real” when communicating with physically present persons, with similar norms applied as in human-to-human social interactions. Especially in the context of classroom communication, people keep communication distances comparable to far personal or close social distances. These findings suggest that implementation of TPRs in education does not put additional requirements for physical space in classroom.

A recent literature review on personal space in human-robot interaction identified a research gap for the influence of contextual factors. At the same time, psychological research on interpersonal distancing and theoretical considerations based on compensatory control models suggest the importance of considering these factors in robot path planning. To address this gap, we tested the effect of room size and working memory load on participants' comfort distance toward an approaching robot. In a preregistered 3 × 2 within-subject design, N = 72 participants were approached by a mobile manufacturing robot in a corridor with varying room size and with and without a cognitive secondary task. As dependent variables, comfort distance, arousal, and perceived control were measured. While room size and working memory load had no significant direct effect on comfort distance, participants felt higher arousal and lower control in smaller rooms and in conditions with high working memory load, which in turn caused larger comfort distances (indirect effect). With experience, comfort distances decreased. Based on the indirect effects, future studies should test the effect of more extreme manipulations on comfort distances. Robots should adapt their path planning by keeping larger distances toward human workers in stressful environments to avoid discomfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interacting with objects and people requires specifying localized spaces where these interactions can take place. Previous studies suggest that the space for interacting with objects (i.e., the peripersonal space) contributes to defining the space for interacting with people (i.e., personal and interpersonal spaces). Furthermore, situational factors, such as wearing a face mask, have been shown to influence social spaces, but how they influence the relation between action and social spaces and are modulated by individual factors is still not well understood. In this context, the present study investigated the relationship between action peripersonal and social personal and interpersonal spaces in participants approached by male and female virtual characters wearing or not wearing a face mask. We also measured individual factors related to the behavioral immune system, namely willingness to take risks, perceived infectability and germ aversion. The results showed that compared to peripersonal space, personal space was smaller and interpersonal space was larger, but the three spaces were positively correlated. All spaces were altered by gender, being shorter when participants faced female characters. Personal and interpersonal spaces were reduced with virtual characters wearing a face mask, especially in participants highly aversive to risks and germs. Altogether, these findings suggest that the regulation of the social spaces depends on the representation of action peripersonal space, but with an extra margin that is modulated by situational and personal factors in relation to the behavioral immune system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]