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A number of potential stressors are present in captive environments and it is critically important to identify them in order to improve health and welfare in ex situ animal populations. In this study, we investigated the adrenocortical activity of a colony of African penguins hosted in an immersive zoo in Italy, with respect to the presence of visitors and local microclimatic conditions, using the non-invasive method of assessing faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs). The penguins’ exhibit is a large naturalistic outdoor enclosure, which closely reproduces the natural habitat of this species. Data collection took place from the beginning of June to the end of August 2014, during the period of maximum flow of visitors. We carried out 12 sampling periods, each involving 2 consecutive days; during the first day we counted the visitors and we registered the meteorological data, and on the second day, we collected the faecal samples, which amounted to a total of 285 faecal samples. Our results showed that the number of visitors did not influence the adrenocortical activity of the African penguins. Conversely, the local microclimatic conditions did influence the physiological stress on these birds. We found that an increase of the daily mean temperature induced a significant increase in FGM concentrations, although humidity and wind speed had a moderating effect on temperature and reduced the heat-induced stress. Moreover, we calculated two climatic indices, commonly used to assess the thermal discomfort in animals, namely the THI (Temperature-Humidity Index) and WCI (Wind Chill Index), and we detected a positive relationship between their values and the FGM levels, demonstrating that these indices could be useful indicators of weather discomfort in African penguins. Our study shows that the simulating naturalistic conditions could have significant benefits for zoo animals, such as reducing the negative effect of visitors. Nevertheless, it should be taken into account where the zoological facility is located and if the local microclimatic conditions are compatible with the hosted species, to ensure that they do not differ greatly from their natural habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anterior gastrointestinal tract obstruction by a foreign body has been reported in several avian species, most commonly in captive birds. It is often associated with behavioral issues that lead to compulsive consumption of bedding materials or bright moving objects. In penguins, foreign bodies are most commonly identified at necropsy and often are found in the ventriculus because of anatomic characteristics of the species. A captive African black-footed penguin ( Spheniscus demersus) was diagnosed with a ventricular foreign body. The anatomic and physiologic differences that should be taken into account when surgically removing a ventricular foreign body in a penguin are described. These differences include the caudal location in the coelom and the large size of the ventriculus in proportion to the penguin's body size; the presence of a simple stomach, uniform in thickness and lacking muscular development; a simple gastrointestinal cycle (gastric contraction); and variability in pH of stomach contents. No complications were observed after surgery, and the bird recovered completely. Management of foreign bodies in birds should be based on the clinical signs of the individual bird, the species affected and its anatomic characteristics, the nature and location of the foreign body, available tools, and the preference and experience of the surgeon. This particular case demonstrates that the most indicated and preferred method is not always possible and that knowledge of biologic, anatomic, and physiologic differences of the species may allow the use of an alternative and more invasive approach with favorable outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonhuman animals in zoos are exposed to a continuous human presence, which affects their behaviors and welfare. However, little is known about what role the “visitor effect” has on penguins in captivity. The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) is an endangered species commonly housed in zoos worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the abundance of human bathers could reduce the average time spent in the water of a colony of African penguins housed in an exhibit where their pond habitat was adjacent to a swimming pool. Observations were carried out on 7 penguins in the summer of 2009. Data were collected during 3 time periods (Time 1 [T1] = opening of the swimming season, Time 2 [T2] = core of the season, Time 3 [T3] = late season) of 14 days each. The human disturbance caused by bathers strongly reduced the pond use by penguins at T1 and T2, especially when there were large numbers of visitors. However, at T3, we observed that the overall use of the pond by penguins increased, and the average duration of their diving was no longer dependent on the number of visitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]