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Cygnus X--1 is the first Galactic source confirmed to host an accreting black hole. It has been detected across the entire electromagnetic spectrum from radio to GeV $\gamma$-rays. The source's radio through mid-infrared radiation is thought to originate from the relativistic jets. The observed high degree of linear polarisation in the MeV X-rays suggests that the relativistic jets dominate in this regime as well, whereas a hot accretion flow dominates the soft X-ray band. The origin of the GeV non-thermal emission is still debated, with both leptonic and hadronic scenarios deemed to be viable. In this work, we present results from a new semi-analytical, multi-zone jet model applied to the broad-band spectral energy distribution of Cygnus X--1 for both leptonic and hadronic scenarios. We try to break this degeneracy by fitting the first-ever high-quality, simultaneous multiwavelength data set obtained from the CHOCBOX campaign (Cygnus X--1 Hard state Observations of a Complete Binary Orbit in X-rays). Our model parameterises dynamical properties, such as the jet velocity profile, the magnetic field, and the energy density. Moreover, the model combines these dynamical properties with a self-consistent radiative transfer calculation including secondary cascades, both of leptonic and hadronic origin. We conclude that sensitive TeV $\gamma$-ray telescopes like Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) will definitively answer the question of whether hadronic processes occur inside the relativistic jets of Cygnus X--1., Comment: 16 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Recently, there has been an increased interest in the study of the generation of low-energy cosmic rays (CRs; < 1 TeV) in shocks situated on the surface of a protostar or along protostellar jets. These locally accelerated CRs offer an attractive explanation for the high levels of non-thermal emission and ionisation rate, $\zeta$, observed close to these sources. The high $\zeta$ observed in some protostellar sources is generally attributed to shock-generated UV photons. The aim of this article is to show that when synchrotron emission and a high $\zeta$ are measured in the same spatial region, a locally shock-accelerated CR flux is sufficient to explain both phenomena. We assume that relativistic particles are accelerated according to the first-order Fermi acceleration mechanism and compute $\zeta$ and the non-thermal emission at cm wavelengths. We then apply our model to the star-forming region OMC-2 FIR 3/FIR 4. Using a Bayesian analysis, we constrain the parameters of the model and estimate the spectral indices of the non-thermal radio emission. We demonstrate that the local CR acceleration model makes it possible to simultaneously explain the synchrotron emission along the HOPS 370 jet within the FIR 3 region and $\zeta$ observed near the FIR 4 protocluster. Our model constrains the magnetic field strength (~250-450$~\mu$G), its turbulent component (~20-40$~\mu$G), and the jet velocity in the shock reference frame for the three non-thermal sources of the HOPS 370 jet (~350-1000 km s$^{-1}$). Beyond the modelling of the OMC-2 FIR 3/FIR 4 system, we show how the combination of continuum observations at cm wavelengths and molecular transitions is a powerful new tool for the analysis of star-forming regions: these two types of observations can be simultaneously interpreted by invoking only the presence of locally accelerated CRs, without having to resort to shock-generated UV photons., Comment: 10 pages, 6 figures, accepted by A&A