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Three sets of meta-analyses examined gender effects on children's language use. Each set of analyses considered an aspect of speech that is considered to be gender typed: talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech. Statistically significant average effect sizes were obtained with all three language constructs. On average, girls were slightly more talkative and used more affiliative speech than did boys, whereas boys used more assertive speech than did girls. However, the average effect sizes were either negligible (talkativeness, d=0.11; assertive speech, d=0.11) or small (affiliative speech, d=0.26). Larger effect sizes were indicated for some language constructs depending on either the operational definition of the language measure, the method of recording, the child's age level, the interaction partner (adult or peer), group size, gender composition, observational setting, or type of activity. The results are interpreted in relation to social-developmental and social-constructionist approaches to gender; these views are presented as complementary--rather than competing--meta-theoretical viewpoints.

Previous theorizing suggests that the first stage of self-disclosure is the pursuit of an interpersonal goal. However, among individuals disclosing a concealable stigmatized identity, little is known about how their goals impact downstream processes such as language use and post-disclosure affect. Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), we examined the extent to which primed self-image or compassionate goals influence the linguistic content and style of disclosure, as well as dyad members' affective states. Self-image disclosures were high in negative self-focused attention, whereas compassionate disclosures were more inclusive and positive in valence. Moreover, among disclosers, negative emotion words predicted their own negative affect. Among confidants, first-person singular and second-person pronouns predicted negative affect, however, this outcome was inversely related to disclosers' use of social words. Compassionate goals that seek mutually beneficial outcomes may help disclosers communicate information about their stigma more effectively, and attenuate dyad members' feelings of emotional distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), impacting approximately 2% of adults worldwide, presents a formidable challenge in psychiatric diagnostics. Often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed, BPD is associated with high morbidity and mortality. This scoping review embarks on a comprehensive exploration of observable cues in BPD, encompassing language patterns, speech nuances, facial expressions, nonverbal communication, and physiological measurements. The findings unveil distinctive features within the BPD population, including language patterns emphasizing external viewpoints and future tense, specific linguistic characteristics, and unique nonverbal behaviors. Physiological measurements contribute to this exploration, shedding light on emotional responses and physiological arousal in individuals with BPD. These cues offer the potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy and complement existing diagnostic methods, enabling early identification and management in response to the urgent need for precise psychiatric care in the digital era. By serving as possible digital biomarkers, they could provide objective, accessible, and stress-reducing assessments, representing a significant leap towards improved psychiatric assessments and an invaluable contribution to the field of precision psychiatry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the interplay among language proficiency, use and attitudes of Shenzhen-Hong Kong cross-border students (CBS), a unique group of Hong Kong students who reside in Shenzhen and attend school in Hong Kong. A questionnaire survey of over 500 CBS reveals that Putonghua is their dominant language, followed by Cantonese, while their hometown dialect and English play peripheral roles. CBS show strong preferences for Putonghua, both instrumentally and integratively. Statistical analyses indicate significant correlations between CBS’ proficiency in the four languages and their attitudes towards them. The study identifies pairwise associations among CBS’ use of Cantonese at school, their proficiency in the language, and their attitudes towards it, forming a reinforcing cycle. However, no such patterns were found for Putonghua or English. The study concludes that improving CBS’ Cantonese proficiency and emotional connection to the language is essential for their integration into Hong Kong society, addressing identity challenges, and fostering a cohesive sense of belonging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multilingualism refers to a phenomenon where individuals routinely use three or more languages. Spatial processes, such as mobility, may shape the outcome of multilingual linguistic behaviors but are considerably under‐explored. We evaluate the effect of mobility on language use in the framework of dual spatialization in a small‐scale multilingual society. We use a footpath network to characterize mobility in absolute space, and a language network to characterize language use in relational space; we then assess the correspondence between the two networks. Redundancy analysis and the k‐means method are used to support the research goal. We found a high correspondence between mobility and language use. The results identify the absence of regional "centers of gravity" as a distinctive feature in language use, as mobility has fostered local clusters of language use. Conceptually, this study showcases the power of dual spatialization in understanding the mechanisms underlying the space–language connection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated heritage language (HL) maintenance and ethnic identity among Korean heritage speakers in the Pacific region (Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii), an understudied population in the field. It focused on patterns of language use and factors (i.e. age at immigration (AI), self-rated language proficiency, and frequency of language use) influencing Korean heritage speakers' self-defined identity. A total of 167 Korean immigrant adults aged 18–40 completed an online survey regarding their HL (i.e. Korean) and majority language (ML) (i.e. English) use in everyday contexts (e.g. with family members and at work), their self-rated HL and ML proficiency, and their sense of identity. The survey results showed high HL use with parents/grandparents at home, high self-rated HL proficiency, and a strong sense of identity as Korean, among participants across the three locations. However, as with other ethnic minority communities, they tended to use ML more than HL in most of their daily activities, and with their siblings and friends, indicating a perceptible shift towards ML. This supports the findings of previous studies conducted in North America. Notably, this study found that AI was significantly correlated to the participants' self-identification. Regional differences were discussed, along with recommendations for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English features prominently in global communication as part of the knowledge economy in Indonesia and worldwide. Meritocracy represents a key concept within the rhetoric of this economy, as it promises that how well people do in life is not determined by external matters, but mostly by how hard they try. Included here is how hard they study English, and how well they perform on measures of English proficiency. No previous research has, however, considered English teachers' beliefs about the role of English in meritocracy. This is perhaps surprising given that the literature has increasingly highlighted the role of teachers as changemakers. To explore this issue, the present study considered the views of 260 English teachers in Indonesia. Findings revealed statistically significant correlations between teachers' beliefs in meritocracy for their own careers and for their students, on the one hand, and their views of English as a tool for success, on the other hand. This study not only makes an empirical contribution to the limited literature on the role of meritocracy in language education, but also advances conversation on language education from a multilingual and multicultural perspective by addressing the limits of meritocracy through Global Englishes with a translanguaging orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses a research study that involves five preschool teachers working in linguistically diverse classrooms. It focuses on how these teachers' beliefs regarding language teaching and learning have emerged from their own experiences, and how they affect their understanding of their work. The study draws on the concept of plurilingualism and, to explore what the participants think, know and believe about language learning and language use, employs a dynamic and situated view of teacher cognition —that is, a view which pays particular attention to the specific context of teachers' biographies and their emotional lives. Findings emerging from this research study suggest that, although teachers usually have numerous language learning experiences, their understanding of bilingualism is founded on monolingual assumptions, and, as a result, bilingualism is seen as complete fluency in both languages. In addition, the study proposes an extension of the current understanding of who a language teacher is by including early childhood educators in this conceptualization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discursive events such as proverbs construct society's beliefs, values, and attitudes. Proverbs as verbal expressions of persons with disability are discursive sites to see the cultural location of persons with disability. However, no research has been undertaken in the area to see discursive attitudes concerning the lives of persons with a disability. Thus, the study examines the roles given to persons with disability in proverbs. It investigates the language used to describe persons with disabilities. In addition, it explores how persons with a disability are portrayed in the proverbs. Toward this end, the study uses conceptual lines of critical discourse analysis and the social model. It employs a qualitative approach and textual analysis of thirty purposively selected proverbs that have persons with disability as a subject. An interview with five key informants was conducted to identify the contextual meanings of the said proverbs selected from a book. The study shows that the proverbs used are offensive and dehumanizing. They accentuate impairments and perpetuate the views that persons with disabilities are deficient, naïve, shameless, aggressive, restless, sexually immoral, judgmental, idle talkers, curses, outcasts, incapable, and unfit to work. Likewise, persons with disability were noted as objects of metaphor to illustrate impossibility, inability, limitation, and failure. The study concludes that proverbs carry deep-rooted negative views concerning persons with disability. Thus, media, teachers, authors, associations, and advocacy groups can have cultural insights to rectify the disabilityrelated stigmatizing and discriminatory discourses. Also, curriculum designers, education policymakers, and NGOs should enhance their roles with insights to undermine these negative views. Other researchers can pursue further investigations on the experiences of persons with disability in Tigrai. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I question the idea that proper names are merely used to refer to things or individuals. However, I am not going to use predicativism to prove this point. I will somehow look at things from the point of view of scholars like Frege or Kripke. I consider that this idea (that proper names are merely used to refer, at least when they are in argument positions) stems from a view of language that does not throw proper light on contextuality as discussed by Mey, Jacob. 2001. Pragmatics. Oxford: Wiley. From the very beginning, I argue that the issue can be seen in a better light through a theory of language use that considers language games as embedded in a society and a culture. I accept the idea that there are norms for introducing names in society and for using them in an appropriate way. Even if, for most philosophers, referring is the basic function of proper names, I propose that in a number of cases proper names are not essentially used to refer (although it is possible that the name allows a combination of referring and other functions). The referring function of names broadly correlates with the assertive function of the utterance in which the name occurs or with speech acts whose aim is to modify reality and, therefore, persuade, modify, create, promote, destroy, etc. objects or individuals (often referred to with proper names). However, there are other types of speech acts where proper names are not only used to refer, but, instead, to call someone (another case is scolding someone or a dog). Intentions clearly emerge in context. The same utterance may have more than one function, from the illocutionary point of view, but a proper name, as situated in different contexts, may have more than one perlocutionary function. I argue that while the speech act of referring is always a diagonal speech act, the speech act of calling someone (by the use of a proper name) is not a diagonal speech act but a self-sufficient, autonomous, primary speech act. Hence there is a clear difference between referring through an assertion and referring as part of calling, where referring is incorporated into the main speech act as part of the explicit illocutionary force of the speech act. In an assertion, referring is a prerequisite to providing a referent about which a property is asserted. Predication and reference are intertwined. In a speech act other than an assertion, there need not be a predicate, and referring and calling (or some other speech act) are connected. I propose that the learning of the speech act of calling by the use of a name requires certain syntactic considerations, that prima facie contradict Chomsky's binding theory. I then put forward the view that learning one's name requires, at some stage, knowledge of the semantics of de se structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study examines the language attitudes and language use of two North Korean refugees living in the Gyeongsang provincial region of South Korea and actively trying to assimilate into mainstream Korean society. In interviews, the participants expressed a hierarchical view of three varieties of Korean (their North Korean Hamgyong dialect, the South Korean Gyeongsang dialect, and standard South Korean). They discussed how their North Korean accents exacerbated their marginalization, described the Gyeongsang dialect as "ignorant" and "rude," and explained how and why they were trying to acquire standard South Korean. They also described how their North Korean accent continued to affect their communication with local South Korean speakers, who often perceived them as sounding angry and commanding. The participants had developed diverse communicative strategies in response to these language-related challenges, including smiling so as to not appear aggressive, remaining silent to avoid being outed by their speech, speaking carefully to appear more South Korean and avoid potential misunderstandings, and proactively revealing their North Korean background and seeking their interlocutors' understanding in advance. Based on the findings, the study offers practical implications for language-support programs designed for North Korean refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the challenges of teaching and learning among multilingual elementary students, the Philippines, a multilingual country with over 180 languages, implemented the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). Studies on the use of mother tongue have reported positive results among students who share a common language. However, in highly multilingual places, mother tongue use poses a challenge to students whose mother tongues differ from the one used in the classrooms. Using non-participatory observations, this study gathered data from a highly multilingual city in the Philippines to determine how teachers and students use languages during the teaching and learning of science. It reveals that the participants used translanguaging in accomplishing communicative functions needed in teaching and learning science. Subsequently, the study proffers the legitimization of translanguaging as it is pedagogically beneficial to both the teachers and the students in multilingual elementary classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a very long time, France’s language policy has considered French as the only language of the republic, ignoring any other languages spoken across the country. In such a situation, immigrant minorities are most likely to experience significant challenges in preserving their heritage language. This paper addresses language maintenance and shift among the Algerian minority group in France, which represents the largest immigrant group with 12.7% of the total number of foreigners living in the country. It seeks to compare three generations by examining their language proficiency, language use, and language attitude in order to gauge the degree to which each generation is maintaining the heritage language. It also seeks to determine whether participants’ language proficiency and use are associated with their length of residence in the host country, age at immigration, and language attitudes. To reach these goals, a questionnaire was administered to the target population, together with interviews recorded with a smaller group in each generation. Based on the questionnaire data from 187 participants, the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences between the three generations in their self-reported proficiency and use of Arabic and French languages, which may be an indication of a gradual shift towards French. The interviews conducted with 11 participants suggested that the reasons behind such a shift are related to: prior exposure to the French language before migration, lack of exposure to the Arabic language, and experiences of discrimination and marginalization. The correlation between the extralinguistic variables and language proficiency has shown no relationship between participants’ length of residence and their level of proficiency in the Arabic language. However, age at immigration and attitude have positively and significantly correlated to participants’ Arabic language proficiency.

This study adds to the existing literature on the history of the Ghanaian press from pre-colonial times to 1992, focusing on language: its choice and ideological, socio-cultural, and political ramifications. While the history of the press has received massive scholarly attention, the same cannot be said of language and its use in historical accounts. Thus, from a historical research perspective, employing an analytical and interpretive study of secondary data sources, and underpinned by cultural theories such as linguistic imperialism and hegemony, this study analyses how language was featured in the press during the research period and the implications thereof. This analysis shows that various institutions and individuals exploited language to foster narrow socio-cultural, ideological, and political agendas in the Gold Coast, later Ghana. This study also revealed that language use and its ideological forces during the pre- and immediate post-independence periods contributed immensely to Ghanaian media’s current state and Ghanaians’ general language attitudes. This study’s significance lies in the realisation that language, as a cultural artifact, and its choice, use, and consumption could have far-reaching consequences for the self-realisation, actualisation, and general progress of a society. Thus, African societies should be mindful of the ideological implications of language choices not just in the press but also in other societal contexts. This study, therefore, invites further studies on language and its use in the media, especially from 1992, for a more comprehensive appreciation of the issues raised in this study.

In order to avoid the cycle of communication and self, we explore the symbolic-linguistic properties of communication. Interaction is seen as symbolic interaction, but symbols, as the result of intentional construction, are realized within the self, not interacting but acting. Of course, language is used in communication, but phenomenological linguistics believe that essence is self-forming, and commonality is the guarantee of communication, so we may not need to communicate. Derrida, on the other hand, argues that communication and language do not guarantee their origin, but rather the indefinite playfulness of freedom in the context of complementarity and "differance". Wittgenstein, on the other hand, argues that language games also have rules, and that they are arbitrarily generated norms in the use of human language. Languages are communications. Communications have various uses in the human lifestyles: symbolic interaction, essential commonality or as language are all uses of communication. Unlimited usage, no loop and self-closure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study adds to the existing literature on the history of the Ghanaian press from pre-colonial times to 1992, focusing on language: its choice and ideological, socio-cultural, and political ramifications. While the history of the press has received massive scholarly attention, the same cannot be said of language and its use in historical accounts. Thus, from a historical research perspective, employing an analytical and interpretive study of secondary data sources, and underpinned by cultural theories such as linguistic imperialism and hegemony, this study analyses how language was featured in the press during the research period and the implications thereof. This analysis shows that various institutions and individuals exploited language to foster narrow socio-cultural, ideological, and political agendas in the Gold Coast, later Ghana. This study also revealed that language use and its ideological forces during the pre- and immediate post-independence periods contributed immensely to Ghanaian media's current state and Ghanaians' general language attitudes. This study's significance lies in the realisation that language, as a cultural artifact, and its choice, use, and consumption could have far-reaching consequences for the self-realisation, actualisation, and general progress of a society. Thus, African societies should be mindful of the ideological implications of language choices not just in the press but also in other societal contexts. This study, therefore, invites further studies on language and its use in the media, especially from 1992, for a more comprehensive appreciation of the issues raised in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finnish queer teachers work in an esteemed profession but also belong to a marginalized minority group. This article analyses interview data focusing on non-heterosexual teachers' understanding of their language use in schools, drawing from sociolinguistic research with queer linguistics. Methodologically, Critical Discourse Analysis is applied to the data to explore the influence of heteronormativity shaping the way queer teachers understand their language use, resting on the knowledge that language use constructs social meanings and establishes discourses. The analysis provides discourses of safety, incompatibility and resistance that demonstrate the construction of social meanings to the understanding of language use, suggesting the main issues in heteronormative schools are connected to safety and experiencing incompatibility as a teacher. Queer teachers are also compelled to resist heteronormativity in many ways. The article concludes that there are heteronormative power settings specific to educational contexts, information that could be utilized for initiating change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malay is the national and official language of the country, while English is the language of wider communication. In addition, Mandarin and Tamil are also taught in the school as the medium of instruction. The diversity of languages in Malaysia has raised questions about people's attitudes towards the Malay language, especially non-Malays. This paper aims to investigate the use of the national language in Greater KL Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the study area because it is a cultural, economic, social, and political center that reflects the diversity of Malaysia. A total of 493 respondents were selected as the sample. The questionnaire consisted of demographics, language use of Malay in different domains. The use of language was measured based on four domains: family and friendship, media, occupation, and education. The results showed that the Malays have positive attitudes towards the Malay language in all domains, while the non-Malays (Chinese and Indian) showed a negative attitude in the domain of media and family. The study also found that highly educated respondents showed a positive attitude towards the Malay language than the non-educated. The different attitudes between Malays and non-Malays towards the Malay language are influenced by the education system. The majority of the Malays are educated in national schools that use Malay as the medium of instruction, while the Chinese and Indians are mixed due to their education in vernacular schools and national schools. Therefore, their attitude towards the Malay is relatively modest or negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between language attitudes and language use from a social cognition perspective in the context of Catalonia, a culturally and linguistically diverse Spanish Autonomous Community that has been implementing social and educational measures to promote the use of its own language, Catalan. We examined how implicit and explicit measures of attitudes towards Catalan and Spanish predict self-reported language use and spontaneous language choice. Participants (N = 98) completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT), self-reports of language attitudes and use, and a spontaneous language choice. Although both implicit and explicit measures correlated with the behavioural measures, the results showed that the IAT had predictive and incremental validity. Moreover, a partial dissociation pattern of prediction was identified, underscoring the importance of including implicit measures of language attitudes, as they predict variance in behaviour above and beyond what is predicted by explicit measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), impacting approximately 2% of adults worldwide, presents a formidable challenge in psychiatric diagnostics. Often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed, BPD is associated with high morbidity and mortality. This scoping review embarks on a comprehensive exploration of observable cues in BPD, encompassing language patterns, speech nuances, facial expressions, nonverbal communication, and physiological measurements. The findings unveil distinctive features within the BPD population, including language patterns emphasizing external viewpoints and future tense, specific linguistic characteristics, and unique nonverbal behaviors. Physiological measurements contribute to this exploration, shedding light on emotional responses and physiological arousal in individuals with BPD. These cues offer the potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy and complement existing diagnostic methods, enabling early identification and management in response to the urgent need for precise psychiatric care in the digital era. By serving as possible digital biomarkers, they could provide objective, accessible, and stress-reducing assessments, representing a significant leap towards improved psychiatric assessments and an invaluable contribution to the field of precision psychiatry.

This essay examines diglossia within the Javanese community, highlighting a complex, tiered language structure reflective of social hierarchies, expanding upon Fasold’s concept of double overlapping diglossia. Classic diglossia, as outlined by Ferguson, is contrasted with broader interpretations by Fishman, which have been criticized for overgeneralization. Javanese society showcases an intricate model of diglossia, where Bahasa Indonesia and various forms of Javanese are utilized across different social domains. The study explores the use of High and Low language varieties within Javanese society, specifically in educational and community settings. Research indicates that language use is adaptive, with choices reflecting the interplay between formality, social relationships, and educational contexts. Despite the depth of current studies, further exploration is needed to understand the impact of global languages on traditional diglossic practices, especially among the youth. This essay proposes investigating how global trends and digital communication influence the Javanese language’s future trajectory, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of linguistic evolution in Javanese society amid globalization.

This paper explores the relationship between teachers and learners, particularly within Mathematics education, examining how language and discourse influence relationship dynamics. It acknowledges historical educational hierarchies where teachers exerted authority and students assumed passive roles. Through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the study scrutinizes a Swahili meme, ‘Wewe mwalimu wa mathe uliyesema sitofika mbali, hapa ni wapi?’ (‘You, the math teacher who said I wouldn’t go far, where is this?’), which reflects students’ doubts and potential discouragement from math teachers. Employing qualitative methods like digital ethnography and purposeful sampling, the research examines the meme’s interpretations, employing CDA to dissect linguistic features such as deixis, modifiers, modality, interrogative structures, proniminal and iron or rhetoric, and socio-cultural contexts. The analysis reveals the meme’s strategic use of these linguistic elements to challenge power dynamics, evoke reflection, and convey deeper meanings. The implied meanings of the meme expression include questioning authority, validation of student agency, a narrative of resilience, critique of the educational system, and the significance of teacher-student interactions. The study has also shown that the hapa ni wapi? ‘Where is this’ expression has impacts on Math’s teachers and teachers at large. Such impacts are focused on power dynamics, identity representation, the role of teachers, emotional impact, and pose challenge to the educational system. This study, highlights the influential role of teachers in shaping students’ lives, emphasizes the importance of language use in education, and promotes a more inclusive and growth-oriented learning environment.

The research aims to illustrate the process of designing an educational application for the Colombian Spanish learning journey as a foreign language for A1 students. It seeks to enhance communicative competence across various dimensions including grammar, lexical, pragmatics, and cultural understanding. The research structured a development plan through qualitative and quantitative analysis, integrating investigation, data collection and techno-pedagogical references to inform that application's design. The findings underscored the significance of didactic resources and the utilization of software applications like the Ionic Framework and JavaScript language. The application's design facilitates more effective interaction by fostering the development of different language components using a mediation tool such as the technology. The findings demonstrate the importance of digital resources, interaction, use of sociolinguistic and pragmatic contents in authentic and real contexts of the Spanish language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the variation found within Judeo-Georgian as it correlates with predetermined geographical and social categories and explores the changes it underwent as spoken by the small Jewish community remaining in Georgia and, later, as a consequence of contacts with other languages, in a new linguistic environment in Israel. The research is based on the theories and methods of variationist sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. Social and geographical factors were instrumental in shaping linguistic variation in Judeo-Georgian as one of the key identity markers of Georgian Jews. Geographical, social, and religious dimensions of Judeo-Georgian are discussed in relation to linguistic variables. The research builds on Sarah Bunin Benor's (2008) distinctive linguistic repertoire approach to Jewish languages. The varieties of Judeo-Georgian spoken in Georgia were based on local/regional dialects but differed from them through the use of Hebraisms/Aramaisms, displaced dialectisms, and archaisms. Upper-class Jews largely avoided using Judeo-Georgian, middle-class Jews used it in certain speech situations, and for lower-class Jews, it was the only means of communication. Regional and social peculiarities of Judeo-Georgian, as spoken in different parts of Georgia, as well as the changes caused by immigration, are manifest in the speech varieties spoken by Georgian Jewry in Israel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a comparative study of the oral English proficiency gains of two groups of students, namely mobility students before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (n = 26), who were matched for background variables such as pre-departure oral proficiency, duration of stay, accommodation, and destination. Oral proficiency was measured before and after the stay using the Oral Proficiency Interview by Computer (OPIc). Results indicate that students staying abroad before the outbreak of the pandemic made significant progress while students staying abroad during the pandemic did not. Student comments suggest that this may be related to the measures taken to contain the pandemic, limiting opportunities for social networking and interaction. However, this impression could not be supported by statistical analyses of the self-reported number of social contacts or amount of English language use. The results point to the need for consideration of qualitative aspects of social interactions and language use and a more frequent and situated assessment of these. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Aims and objectives: This study explores the effect of cognitive load on code-switching (CS), by examining whether an increase in cognitive load can lead to a different amount and/or pattern of CS use, and whether there is an interplay between the effect of cognitive load and the effect of social factors (i.e., language and use, and attitudes towards CS). Methodology: Thirty-one Chinese-English bilinguals participated in a picture recall experiment consisting of three sessions, with an incremental increase in cognitive load which was achieved by manipulating the number of attentional targets that should be attended to. The increase in cognitive load was validated by a self-report survey adapted from Paas. Information on social variables was collected by a language use questionnaire. Data and analysis: The amount and pattern (intraclausal vs interclausal) of CS were coded and quantified. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the within-participant use of CS across the sessions. Hierarchal regression analyses were also conducted to examine how cognitive load and the social variables of interest predicted the between-participant variation of CS in each session. Findings/conclusions: The results showed that the participants used significantly less intraclausal CS in Session 3, in which they reported the highest degree of cognitive load. In addition, the results of hierarchical regression analyses for overall CS use in Session 2 confirmed the significant effect of cognitive load. The influence of attitudes towards CS was also shown to be another significant predictor with large effect size. However, in the more demanding Session 3, none of the factors of interest could predict between-participant variation in CS use. Originality: This study is among the first to examine how cognitive load affects nonlaboratory CS. Significance/implications: This study argues for a recognition of the cognitive processing basis of socially driven language use, linking sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives on the use of CS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does speaking Mandarin at an early age translate to higher educational achievement? This research found a positive correlation between enrolling in universities and speaking Mandarin during childhood, but this is a spurious relationship. Children who have parents with high education or high socioeconomic status are just as likely to enroll in universities regardless of the languages they use to communicate. Parents who received relatively low levels of education or have lower socioeconomic status do not contribute to their children's prospects of enrolling in universities even if they deliberately communicate in Mandarin. The influence of childhood languages is significant in terms of the educational paths one tends to take after graduating from junior high school. Childhood speakers of Mandarin work towards academic degree programs, while childhood speakers of Taiwanese show affinity toward vocational education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We examined linguistic features in fourth graders' narrative and opinion writing and their relations to writing quality. We analysed narrative and opinion essays in terms of lexical sophistication and diversity as well as syntactic complexity, syntactic accuracy, and morphological complexity. Methods: Data were from English‐speaking students in Grade 4 (N = 129; 50% female) in the United States, majority of whom were from low socioeconomic status background. Paired t tests were used to analyse differences of linguistic features between the two genres. Hierarchical regression models were run to examine how language features are related to writing quality. Results: Words in the narrative task were more diverse and included more diverse verbal inflectional morphemes than those in the opinion task; syntactic complexity was significantly greater in the opinion genre, manifested by longer T‐units and the more frequent use of adverbial and relative clauses. Approximately 80% of T‐units were grammatical and 20% were ungrammatical. Syntactic accuracy and verbal morphological complexity of words were positively related to writing quality in the narrative task. Additionally, syntactic complexity measured by clauses per T‐unit, verbal and nominal morphological complexity of words were uniquely related to writing quality in the opinion genre. Conclusions: The findings highlight the limited extent to which Grade 4 students use complex syntax in their writing. The study also supports the critical role of linguistic features in writing quality and shows both similarities and differences in language use in two important writing genres, narrative and opinion, in elementary grades. Highlights: What is already known about this topic Linguistic features vary across writing genres.Lexical diversity contributes to narrative writing quality for elementary students.The relation between syntactic complexity and writing quality varies by genre. What this paper adds Lexical diversity and nominal morphological complexity were higher in the narrative task; T‐unit length was longer in the opinion task.Syntactic complexity positively and uniquely contributed to writing quality in the opinion task whereas syntactic accuracy positively and uniquely contributed to writing quality in the narrative task.Morphological complexity was uniquely related to writing quality in the narrative and opinion genre. Implications for theory, policy or practice Students in upper elementary grades may benefit from explicit and systematic instruction on salient linguistic features in different genres.Students in upper elementary grades may benefit from explicit and systematic instruction on syntactic accuracy and structures and morphological structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study reports the language vitality of Kensiu, an endangered Austroasitic language spoken by less than 300 individuals in Kampung Orang Asli Lubuk Legong in the northern state of Kedah, Malaysia. Following UNESCO’s language vitality assessment, this study aims to explore three critical issues related to language vitality: (1) intergenerational language transmissions; (2) language use; and (3) language attitude. Data were collected at the Kensiu settlement through semi-structured interviews involving two male native speakers representing younger and older generations of Kensiu. The data were analysed qualitatively using ATLAS-Ti version 8 and were interpreted via assessment tools such as UNESCO’s language vitality assessment and the Extended Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). The results reveal some evidence of intergenerational language transmission within the Kensiu community. The language appears to be used in limited domains, such as ‘family’ and ‘friendship’, with the High variety (Malay) being given more emphasis over the Low variety (Kensiu), though there is a balanced relationship between diglossia and bilingualism. The gap in Sustainable Literacy is also apparent in the literary resources related to the Kensiu language. With regard to language attitude, there are some contrasting perspectives between older and younger generations, though both participants generally agree about the identity of Kensiu speakers and the way they accommodate other dominant languages in their daily life. The findings shed some light on the concepts of intergenerational transmission, language use, and language attitude on the Kensiu language and provide an avenue for further investigations involving endangered indigenous languages in Malaysia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When speaking about music, the term groove can refer to objective qualities, such as rhythmic patterns, or to subjective experiences, such as the pleasurable urge to move to the music. However, the mere juxtaposition of objective musical causes and subjective psychological effects may be too simplistic to fully capture the multifaceted groove phenomenon. We therefore broaden the perspective of groove research by analyzing how people use the term groove in the everyday language of 970,220 comments on 155 YouTube music videos. The corresponding songs were previously rated on groove, operationalized as a pleasurable urge to move. Results show that groove terms were more likely to be used in comments on songs that received higher groove ratings. Resonating with the definition of groove as a pleasurable urge to move, groove terms were very likely to co-occur with movement terms, and comments mentioning groove expressed more positive sentiments. We also found that groove terms were predominantly used to describe objective musical qualities in comments on funk, soul, and R&B songs, suggesting that the use of groove is related to genre. In general, we demonstrate how text mining can be used to review existing definitions and gain new perspectives on current topics in music science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual language learners (DLLs) are sensitive to teachers' language influence in early childhood classrooms. In this mixed methods study incorporating 53 teachers from 28 preschools in Northern California, we investigated the characteristics of teachers' language use in preschools teaching Chinese-English and Spanish-English DLLs. We further examined the links of teachers' language use to the DLLs' expressive vocabulary in English and their heritage language (HL), controlling for home language exposure and other confounding variables. Finally, we conducted interviews with teachers to understand how they make meaning of their daily language practices. The sample of children consisted of 190 Chinese-English (N = 125) and Spanish-English (N = 65) DLLs (mean age = 48.3 months; 48% females). The teacher survey showed that most teachers spoke two or more languages and used a mix of English and their HL during their interactions with DLLs. The results of random-intercept models showed that teachers' language use did not uniquely predict children's vocabulary, controlling for family-level factors. However, the teachers with more years of teaching DLLs oversaw children with a higher HL vocabulary. The interview data revealed that teachers employ several strategies to communicate with DLLs and support HL maintenance. Our study reveals the multilingual backgrounds of preschool teachers and the rich language strategies they implement in multilingual classrooms. Future directions concerning the quality and development of teachers' language use are discussed.

This research aims to analyze the use of language in Sharia financial agreements, with a focus on a case study of mudarabah contracts. Sharia financial agreements play a crucial role in regulating financial transactions in accordance with Sharia principles. In the context of mudarabah contracts, the appropriate and clear use of language becomes a key aspect in maintaining transparency, clarity, and understanding among the parties involved. This research adopts a qualitative method with a case study approach. Research data is collected through document analysis, including mudarabah contract agreements in real practice. The data is then thematically analyzed, focusing on word selection, the use of characteristic clauses, sentence structure, and other language structures in mudarabah contracts. The results of the analysis indicate that the appropriate and clear selection of words in mudarabah contracts is important to reflect Sharia principles and maintain transparency. Furthermore, the use of characteristic clauses helps regulate profit sharing, loss sharing, and the responsibilities of the involved parties. Clear and structured sentence arrangements also ensure clarity and readability of the contract contents. Additionally, the use of distinctive Arabic language structures provides clarity in describing actions that have been taken and instructions that must be followed by the parties involved. This research contributes significantly to understanding the use of language in Sharia financial agreements, particularly in the context of mudarabah contracts. The findings of this research are expected to serve as a reference for practitioners and academics in developing effective Sharia financial agreements in accordance with Sharia principles.

Abstract The assessment encompasses essential concepts and their related measures about the information gathered. The conceptualization within a study becomes imperative to ascertain the corresponding variables and establish appropriate methodologies for their measurement. The willingness to communicate (WTC) concept, an individual’s engagement in communication when given the opportunity, has become a crucial point in second language (L2) learning due to language use and communication. While studies have rendered valuable insights into the differing presentations of L1 WTC and L2 WTC, the subject remains largely unexplored concerning the conceptualization and assessment of L2 WTC in the digital settings and English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The scoping review can aid in advancing our knowledge in this area of investigation by exploring the scope of available research literature on a topic by identifying key concepts and sources of evidence as well as identifying strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the research that inform practice in the field, deepen assessors’ knowledge in the field, and highlight areas that require further inquiry. This study conducted a five-stage scoping review, including (1) establishing the scoping review questions, (2) identifying the related research, (3) determining the inclusion criteria of studies, (4) outlining the data, and (5) analyzing and reporting the results. Six databases, ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycINFO, JSTORE, Elsevier (Scopus), Web of Science Core Collection, and Semantic Scholar, were used for scoping data. Forty-seven studies were included in the final analysis. The results discuss the WTC conceptualizations and their directions in L1, L2, and EFL contexts. Furthermore, the results discuss the conceptualization of classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC, operationalization of WTC in digital and EFL contexts, methodological approaches applied for evaluating WTC, the evaluation of teachers’ status in WTC conceptualization, and future directions. The discussions would prove useful in expanding our understanding of how to act toward L2 WTC and the assessment knowledge. Moreover, they would have significant implications for teachers, researchers, assessors, and practitioners in this field. Further, we hope this paper sparks renewed interest in L2 WTC by generating new ideas for researchers to conduct further research.

Many science students struggle with using scientific language and making sense of scientific phenomena. Thus, there is an increased interest in science education research and public policy with regard to understanding and promoting scientific language use and sensemaking in science classrooms. However, there is a lack of comparative studies on how upper-secondary school students of different achievement and language levels use scientific language to make sense of phenomena. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between achievement level, scientific language use, and sensemaking in chemistry for students being set a sensemaking task while constructing concept maps on the topic of chemical equilibrium. The concept maps were collected from five different upper-secondary schools in Sweden from two school systems (Swedish and International Baccalaureate). Using content analysis, these concept maps were examined for scientific language use as well as structuring of sensemaking. A majority of the students had difficulty structuring sensemaking in their concept maps, independently of achievement level. These difficulties included unstructured reasoning, symbolic representations being used as explanations, surface-level learning, and linear reasoning connected to rote learning. There appeared to be a connection between learning context and student individual structuring of sensemaking as expressed in the concept maps. The results also showed a clear relationship between scientific language use and achievement level in the student sample. The results indicate that the structuring of sensemaking and scientific language use are not always connected processes. In conclusion, teachers may need to adopt a teaching practice that includes directed and differentiated support for scientific sensemaking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment encompasses essential concepts and their related measures about the information gathered. The conceptualization within a study becomes imperative to ascertain the corresponding variables and establish appropriate methodologies for their measurement. The willingness to communicate (WTC) concept, an individual's engagement in communication when given the opportunity, has become a crucial point in second language (L2) learning due to language use and communication. While studies have rendered valuable insights into the differing presentations of L1 WTC and L2 WTC, the subject remains largely unexplored concerning the conceptualization and assessment of L2 WTC in the digital settings and English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The scoping review can aid in advancing our knowledge in this area of investigation by exploring the scope of available research literature on a topic by identifying key concepts and sources of evidence as well as identifying strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the research that inform practice in the field, deepen assessors' knowledge in the field, and highlight areas that require further inquiry. This study conducted a five-stage scoping review, including (1) establishing the scoping review questions, (2) identifying the related research, (3) determining the inclusion criteria of studies, (4) outlining the data, and (5) analyzing and reporting the results. Six databases, ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycINFO, JSTORE, Elsevier (Scopus), Web of Science Core Collection, and Semantic Scholar, were used for scoping data. Forty-seven studies were included in the final analysis. The results discuss the WTC conceptualizations and their directions in L1, L2, and EFL contexts. Furthermore, the results discuss the conceptualization of classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC, operationalization of WTC in digital and EFL contexts, methodological approaches applied for evaluating WTC, the evaluation of teachers' status in WTC conceptualization, and future directions. The discussions would prove useful in expanding our understanding of how to act toward L2 WTC and the assessment knowledge. Moreover, they would have significant implications for teachers, researchers, assessors, and practitioners in this field. Further, we hope this paper sparks renewed interest in L2 WTC by generating new ideas for researchers to conduct further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to identify factors associated with Vietnamese-Australian parents' language use and attitudes towards home language maintenance. Vietnamese-Australian parents (n = 151) with children aged under 18 completed a survey regarding demographic factors and factors conceptualised by Spolsky's language policy theory: language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Bivariate analyses and multiple regression models were conducted to explore associations between parents' language use and their attitudes towards home language maintenance and associated factors. Parents' language use with their child was significantly associated with their language practices (parents' language use in social situations). Parents' language use in social situations was significantly associated with language practices (parents' Vietnamese and English proficiency, parents' language use with their child), language management (frequency of attendance at community events), and one demographic factor (age). Parents' attitudes towards home language maintenance was significantly associated with language ideology factors (perceptions of cultural identity, belief in the importance of English language maintenance, belief that home language strengthens relative bonds and widens career options), and one demographic factor (income). The results can be used to assist families with Vietnamese heritage to maintain their home language by informing targeted approaches to supporting language maintenance at the community and family level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For many years now, modern software is known to be developed in multiple languages (hence termed as multilingual or multi-language software). Yet, to date, we still only have very limited knowledge about how multilingual software systems are constructed. For instance, it is not yet really clear how different languages are used, selected together, and why they have been so in multilingual software development. Given the fact that using multiple languages in a single software project has become a norm, understanding language use and selection (i.e., language profile) as a basic element of the multilingual construction in contemporary software engineering is an essential first step. In this article, we set out to fill this gap with a large-scale characterization study on language use and selection in open-source multilingual software. We start with presenting an updated overview of language use in 7,113 GitHub projects spanning the 5 past years by characterizing overall statistics of language profiles, followed by a deeper look into the functionality relevance/justification of language selection in these projects through association rule mining. We proceed with an evolutionary characterization of 1,000 GitHub projects for each of the 10 past years to provide a longitudinal view of how language use and selection have changed over the years, as well as how the association between functionality and language selection has been evolving. Among many other findings, our study revealed a growing trend of using three to five languages in one multilingual software project and the noticeable stableness of top language selections. We found a non-trivial association between language selection and certain functionality domains, which was less stable than that with individual languages over time. In a historical context, we also have observed major shifts in these characteristics of multilingual systems both in contrast to earlier peer studies and along the evolutionary timeline. Our findings offer essential knowledge on the multilingual construction in modern software development. Based on our results, we also provide insights and actionable suggestions for both researchers and developers of multilingual systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This introduction to our special issue surveys some of the current work undertaken by scholars on the island of Puerto Rico and abroad that document the language forms, uses, and ideologies of language in the U.S. territory. We provide the "total linguistic fact" (Silverstein 1985) of what it means to speak English and Spanish in Puerto Rico, Census projections of language use, self-reported data and actual documented work on the form and social uses of languages. We provide the sociohistorical context of the history of both Spanish and English on the Island, language policies across time, and how these have played out and been contested in real time. Setting the scene for our special issue, we ask our readers to think critically on the status of contact languages in globalized times, ideological shifts of language practices, and the intimate ties between language and identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines the use of language in public spaces, especially at the Majapahit Kingdom heritage site, Mojokerto. The aim of this research is to describe how language is used at the Majapahit Kingdom heritage site, Mojokerto using linguistics landscape studies. This research data is a form of language use on posters, signboards, public signs and other signs in the research area that can reflect Mojokerto's designation as a historic city. The research results show that there are seven languages used, namely Indonesian, Javanese, English, Arabic, Hokkien, Mandarin and Pāli. These forms of language use are divided into three categories of language signs in public spaces, namely warning signs, information signs and place names. Factors that influence language signs in public spaces were also found to represent Mojokerto as a heritage site of the Majapahit Kingdom, namely as a place for research and visits for local and foreign tourists. These factors include government regulations, communication needs and marketing promotions for each location.