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Whether an anaphor inside the head of relative clauses can take the embedded subject as its antecedent is commonly used to test the head derivation in relative clauses (e.g., Bhatt 2002; Schachter 1973). This paper uses a truth value judgment experiment to investigate whether the anaphor tuaeng ‘self’ within the head noun phrase of Thai relative clauses can be bound by the embedded subject. The results suggest that such binding is prohibited, which further indicates that the head noun phrase of Thai relative clauses must be base-generated external to the modifying clause.

This paper describes the contact features that Papuan Malay, an eastern Malay variety, situated in East Nusantara, the Austronesian-Papuan contact zone, displays under the influence of Papuan languages. This selection of features builds on previous studies that describe the different contact phenomena between Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages in East Nusantara. Four typical western Austronesian features that Papuan Malay is lacking or making only limited use of are examined in more detail: (1) the lack of a morphologically marked passive voice, (2) the lack of the clusivity distinction in personal pronouns, (3) the limited use of affixation, and (4) the limited use of the numeral-noun order. Also described in more detail are six typical Papuan features that have diffused to Papuan Malay: (1) the genitive-noun order rather than the noun-genitive order to express adnominal possession, (2) serial verb constructions, (3) clause chaining, and (4) tail-head linkage, as well as (5) the limited use of clause-final conjunctions, and (6) the optional use of the alienability distinction in nouns. This paper also briefly discusses whether the investigated features are also present in other eastern Malay varieties such as Ambon Malay, Maluku Malay and Manado Malay, and whether they are inherited from Proto-Austronesian, and more specifically from Proto-Malayic. By highlighting the unique features of Papuan Malay vis-à-vis the other East Nusantara Austronesian languages and placing the regional “adaptations” of Papuan Malay in a broader diachronic perspective, this paper also informs future research on Papuan Malay.

This paper provides arguments in favor of the hypothesis that in two voice alternations in Tibetan (marking transitivity and TAME, respectively), the unvoiced form is primary, and its voiced counterpart the derived form. This hypothesis has consequences for the history of the voicing alternation in Trans-Himalayan in general, and also for the reconstruction of voiced affricates vs. fricatives in pre-Tibetan.

This paper investigates how Vietnamese people express motion by using path verbs. This paper is based on the theory of lexicalization patterns, which is related to the conflation of semantic components into linguistic units. The data consists of expressions of motion verbs and spatial prepositions that were taken from twelve Vietnamese stories and three novels in the 20th century onward. The results of this paper present several lexicalization patterns of semantic components that become path verbs and spatial prepositions. Moreover, this paper clarifies construction grammar of lexical expressions of path motion in Vietnamese, which refers to speakers’ knowledge of motion utilized to express motion.

Devoicing of Voiced Obstruents (DVO) was part of a transformative series of sound changes that characterised all the Tai languages: the original voiced stops became either aspirated or unaspirated when devoiced. Although previous studies show that they occurred before the 17th century (Harris, 1992; Pittayawat 2016), their precise dating is still unclear. While Brown (1965) and Chamberlain (1991) hold that DVO occurred prior to 13th Century, Shintani (1974) and Gedney (1989 [1978]) place it around 14th-17th Century. To arrive at the chronology of the sound change, I examine transcriptions of Siamese personal names in The Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty (Míng Shí Lù – MSL), using Quasi-Early Nanjing Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese characters as the basis for sorting the correspondence. A careful analysis reveals that the Siamese original voiced stops started to be transcribed by the Chinese original voiceless aspirated stops in 1440s. This became prominent after 1480s, suggesting a completion of DVO by that time. The transcription patterns of the Siamese original voiced stops though imply a gradual transition from original voiced to breathy stops, and eventually to voiceless aspirated stops.

This paper presents data from Vwanji, an under-documented Bantu language spoken by approximately 28,000 people in southwestern Tanzania. Bantu languages are well known for having multiple degrees of past time reference grammaticalized in their TAM systems, and Vwanji is a good example of such a language, but one with some interesting typological differences from certain general TAM trends in Bantu languages noted in Nurse (2008). Three past TAM forms, in particular, are the focus of the research: P1 /Anterior SM-VB-ile, P2 SM-a-VB-a, and the Near Past Habitual SM-a-VB-aɣa. The analysis of data from a corpus of narrative and non-narrative texts (both written and oral) reveals that these three TAM forms have multiple discourse functions which do not necessarily follow in expected ways from their places in the TAM system as a whole. Comparing the Vwanji findings with those of neighbouring languages suggests some possible directions in which the verb forms in Vwanji may be changing functionally or being lost. The goal of this investigation is to increase understanding of a typologically interesting language which has not been well described and for which there is very little published data. The paper also shows the importance of taking natural discourse data into account when considering TAM functions in a language. Relying on elicited data alone may hide interesting complexities and variation.

This paper deals with a morphosyntactic phenomenon found in the under-described Bantu language Luguru, spoken in central Tanzania: the verbal marker tsa. This marker encodes shared knowledge or shared reference. The meanings conveyed by the marker stretch from ‘at a specific time’ or ‘at that place’ to ‘as we know’, or even ‘for that reason’. In Mkude’s grammatical description of Luguru from 1974, there is a mention of a marker (zaa) signalling what he calls “recollected reference”, which restricts the event to one specific moment in the past; this marker is believed to have developed into today’s tsa.

Introduction to "The semantics of verbal morphology in under-described languages"

This paper presents the fieldwork data on the interaction of actionality, aspect, and tense in counterfactual conditional clauses of the Kuban dialect of Kabardian, a polysynthetic Northwest Caucasian language. Kabardian shows non-trivial similarities to Romance languages in its use of the Imperfective Past suffix as a marker of counterfactuality — alone or as a part of the complex marker of the Pluperfect marker where the Imperfect attaches to the Preterite (perfective past). I show that the choice between several types of marking in counterfactual protases (the plain Imperfect, the Pluperfect, and the simple Preterite) primarily depends on actional class and viewpoint aspect: perfective counterfactuals employ either the Pluperfect or the Preterite, while imperfective counterfactuals require the Imperfect, which is in line with the more general distribution of these tense-aspect forms. Theoretical implications of the tense-aspect marking in Kuban Kabardian counterfactual conditionals are also briefly discussed.

This paper provides an overview of evidential strategies in Nyamwezi. Nyamwezi, like many other African languages, does not have specific grammatical categories which indicate evidentiality, but evidentiality can be expressed (i) through tense and aspect constructions and (ii) through lexical verbs (particularly verbs of saying and verbs of perception) and epistemic expressions. These evidential strategies differ from each other based on the information source, that is, on the source of knowledge expressed in a proposition, and on the speaker’s attitude and view concerning that knowledge.

This study aims to reveal the translation errors that occurred in the translation of the hadiths of al-jami' in the book Bulughul Maram by Moh. Macfuddin Aladip and explained the factors that these errors occurred. There have been many studies on the translation of religious texts. This is very important to do in order to control the results of the translation and understanding of the people's religions on these religious texts. In this study, an assessment and analysis of the translation of the book Bulughul Maram Min Adillatil Ahkam by Moh. Machfuddin Aladip, in the chapter of Kitab al-jami '. In revealing the errors that occur in the translation, a comparison technique between the source language and the target language is used by paying attention to the aspects of sharf, nahw and dilalah science. From this study found fatal errors in the translation of several hadiths studied in the book Bulughul Maram Min Adillatil Ahkam by Moh. Machfuddin Aladip, in the chapter of Kitab al-jami'. In addition, the errors that occur are caused by the following factors: (1) lexical improper matching, (2) adding words or phrases to more than words in the source text, (3) shifts that occur at the word level, (4) Elimination of equivalent words and phrases, (5) Identifying words in the source language.

This study aims to determine how well the use of information technology-based learning media. The development of information technology is utilized in all aspects of human life, including education. The learning media that will befocused on being developed is Power Point. Power Point is one of the learning media that is already familiar among educators and students, because of its easy and effective use. The method used in this study is a development method based on the ADDIE Model (Analyze, Design, Development, Implement, and Evaluate) proposed by Dick and Carey, namely research and development carried out in several stages: 1) Analyzing the needs of educators and students 2) Product design, 3) Product development, 4) Product implementation, and 5) Product evaluation. Based on the stages carried out obtained learning media products that are considered feasible and are needed by students after validating and testing the product. The validation of media experts obtained 92%, and material 99%. Meanwhile, based on user ratings obtained by 86%.

This reserach aims to describe the phenomenon of Arabic and Indonesian code switching at TMI al-Amien Prenduan Madura. The use of Arabic as the instruction language of classroom remains a problem because of the language backgrounds diversity both teachers and students. The problem refers to code switching between two or more languages. By using qualitative methods, the research uses recordings, observations and interviews as data collection tools. Then the data is sorted and analyzed by comparing and discussing the presentation of the data based on the theory and practice sections. The results showed that code switching between Arabic and Indonesian occurred in the classroom, either in formal or informal language variations. The causes or motives for using code switching are identified in five reasons, (1) specific theme, (2) quotation, (3) solidarity, (4) clarification, and (5) terminology. This finding rejects the view that code switching is a language defect, such as the case of language interference which occurs due to a lack of knowledge about linguistic elements. On the contrary, this finding strengthens the case of Arabic and Indonesian code switching as the deliberate use of language for certain social purposes, both teachers and students, which is supported by a variety of pragmatics and a micro-level social context, as the classroom conversation strategy.

This research aims to describe the technique of teaching speaking skills in Al Kautsar Elementary School, which was packaged using multiple classroom management based on multiple intelligences and factors that influence the success of the speech skill teaching method in each different class. The researcher used the descriptive qualitative approach, observational and interview data collection, documentation and data analysis with the data triangle. The results show that Al-Kautsar Elementary School organized the education program well, which is characterized by applying the teaching method of speaking skill on the basis of multiple intelligences by producing a variety of different speaking skill teaching method according to students' intelligence means guessing the word, singing, training and physical movement. Thematic and humanistic education curricula were implemented in an integrated way to encourage the achievement of good educational results and the production of speech skill. Then the factors that affect the success of speech skill education in primary school include Al Kautsar consisting of a strong funding factor, environment, reliable human resource management and organized school management. This research suggests the need to reformulate the method of teaching speech skills to administer the teaching of Arabic language in the global age to establish it at the institute.

This paper explores the stages of speaking skill's online lectures using the Zoom Cloud Meeting media as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the Zoom Cloud Meeting media. This study used a descriptive qualitative approach with three data collection techniques, namely observation, interviews, and documentation. The results showed that there were several stages used by lecturers in the implementation of speaking skill lectures using Zoom Cloud Meeting media, namely: (1) Pre-Lecture, (2), Lecture Implementation, (3) and Class Evaluation. There are several features of the Zoom Cloud Meeting media used by lecturers in the implementation of speaking skill lectures such as Schedule, mute & unmute, record, chat, and whiteboards. Researchers also found several advantages regarding the implementation of speaking skill lectures using Zoom Cloud Meeting media such as flexibility in the lecture process, increasing discipline for lecturers and students, and several additional features that can support the smooth implementation of lectures. However, the implementation of lectures using this media is also inseparable from shortcomings such as a poor internet network and limited duration of the free Zoom Cloud Meeting media which can only be used for 40 minutes. From the results of this study, it is hoped that it can provide alternative solutions for lecturers in dealing with online lectures in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic.

This paper presents a study of the Subjunctive in the Bantu languages of Giryama in Kenya (E72a) and Nyanja in Tanzania (N201), and explores its distribution in the two languages. As in other Bantu languages, the Subjunctive is a morphological feature characterized by a verbal suffix -e, an obligatory subject marker, and the absence of tense. Syntactically, the Subjunctive appears in independent clauses, as well as dependent clauses with a certain class of predicates and adverbial subordinators. Independent clauses that may carry the Subjunctive are those that express exhortations or suggestions, and sentences marked with the future tense. Dependent clauses with Subjunctive verbs include: (a) complement clauses containing directive, volitional, and causative verbs, and (b) adverbial clauses such as clauses of purpose. Studies of the subjunctive have often associated its semantic distribution with irrealis, in contrast with the Indicative, which is associated with realis or assertion. We present evidence showing that the irrealis reading may sometimes appear to be absent. We argue that irrealis may not be a necessary and sufficient condition for the Subjunctive. However, the onstructions that give irrealis readings provide the best exemplars of Subjunctives in these two languages. Independent clause Subjunctives are shown to be clearly non-factive. Matrix verbs that take subjunctive complements are described as presupposition triggers of events that are non-factive relative to the matrix event.

The article describes the royal cart burials excavated at the Late Harappan site of Sanauli near Delhi in the spring of 2018 on the basis of the available reports and photographs. The author then comments on these finds, dated to about 1900 bce, with the Sanauli cart burials being the first of their kind in Bronze Age India. In his opinion, several indications suggest that the Sanauli “chariots” are actually carts yoked to bulls, as in the copper sculpture of a bull-cart from the Late Harappan site of Daimabad in Maharashtra. The antennae-hilted swords associated with the burials suggest that these bull-carts are likely to have come from the BMAC or the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex (c.2300–1500 bce) of southern Central Asia, from where thereis iconographic evidence of bull-carts. The ultimate source of the Sanauli/BMAC bull-carts may be the early phase of the Sintashta culture in the Trans-Urals, where the chariot (defined as a horse-drawn light vehicle with two spoked wheels) was most probably invented around the late twenty-first century bce. The invention presupposes an earlier experimental phase, which started with solid-wheeled carts that could only be pulled by bulls. An intermediate phase in the development is the “proto-chariot” with cross-bar wheels, attested in a BMAC-related cylinder seal from Tepe Hissar III B in northern Iran (c.2000–1900 bce). The wooden coffins of the Sanauli royal burials provide another pointer to a possible Sintashta origin. The Sanauli finds are considered in the context of the author’s archaeological model for the prehistory of the Indo-Iranian languages, which is adjusted to meet recent justified criticism.

The problematic identity of the deity Savitṛ in early Vedic religion has sparked more than a century of discussion. Harry Falk, for instance, argued that this god, whose name literally means the ‘impeller’, can be identified with the Milky Way and associated with the rainy season. According to Falk, this association was also responsible for the employment of a verse addressing Savitṛ (a so-called sāvitrī) in the initiation of the Vedic student, whose studies originally began at the onset of the rainy season. The aims of this paper are (a) to review the various theories about Savitṛ’s manifestations in nature and (b) to explain how different natural phenomena and celestial luminaries could be associated with this god. In discussing the theories proposed so far, I not only consider the Vedic sources but also re-evaluate the archaeoastronomical arguments with reliable software. As it turns out, there is no conclusive evidence that Savitṛ was associated with any single phenomenon or luminary at all, nor can he be connected with the rainy season or water in general. Rather, he was an anthropomorphic deity essentially independent of the various natural phenomena and celestial luminaries he impelled.

Review of Danielle Ross, Tatar Empire. Kazan’s Muslims and the Making of Imperial Russia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020. ISBN 978-0-253-04570-6 (hardback), ISBN 978-0-253-04571-3 (paperback), ISBN 978-0-253-04572-0 (E-book). 288 pages.

A seal of the Indic culture represents a goddess standing close to a tree and receiving sacrifices. Seven more goddesses, hypothetically the Ēḻukaṉṉimār or Sapta Mātṛkā, are linked with the Tree Goddess. The ancient Tamil Caṅkam literature, the Naṟṟiṇai and Cilappatikāram (c.450 ce), mention a goddess of the vēṅkai tree, the Vēṅkaik-kaṭavuḷ. In Tiṭṭakuṭi in south Ārkkāṭu district is located a temple dedicated to Vaidhyanāthasvāmi, the goddess called Acaṉāmpikai or Vēṅkai-vaṉanāyaki (cf. Dārukavana or Vaiṣṇava divyadeśa-Naimisāraṇya). The presiding goddess of Tiṭṭakuṭi, according to the sthalapurāṇam, based on oral tradition (twelfth to eighteenth centuries), is the “Mistress of the vēṅkai forest”. Alternatively, in Caṅkiliyāṉpāṟai (Tiṇṭukkal district) located in the foothills of Ciṟumalai, the Sañjīvi-parvata (‘hill of medicinal herbs and trees’) associated with Hanūmān of Rāmāyaṇa fame is a centre of folk worship. Recently, scholars claim to have discovered some pictographic inscriptions there resembling the Indic heritage. Several hypaethral temples to Caṅkili-Kaṟuppaṉ (‘The Black One Bound with an Iron Chain’), the Ēḻukaṉṉimār (‘Seven Virgins’), and the [Ārya]-Śāsta (equated with Ayyappaṉ of Śabarimalā) receive worship. On certain occasions, people from the nearby villages congregate to worship the gods and goddesses and undertake periodical and annual festivals. It seems that a “sacred thread” links the archaic traditions of the Indic culture (c.2500 bce) with the contemporary faiths (see Eliade 1960; Brockington 1998; Shulman & Stroumsa 2002) of Tiṭṭakuṭi and Caṅkiliyāṉpāṟai. This article examines the story of the Tree Goddess, the neo-divinity (vampat-teyvam) or numen (cf. Vedic devamātṛ-Aditi), with references to the Caṅkam lore, datable to the third century bce (cf. “Chōḍa Pāḍā Satiyaputo Ketalaputo” in Aśoka’s Girnar Edict; cf. Mookerji 1972: 223), Vēṅkaikkaṭavuḷ, Acaṉāmpikai of Tiṭṭakuṭi, and the Caṅkiliyāṉpāṟai vestiges.

This paper offers a comprehensive analysis of the morphosyntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of Nivkh demonstratives, which represent a typologically interesting example of an exceptionally elaborated speaker-anchored deictic system. The deictic properties of the demonstratives can be described either in terms of a binary system with the opposition between ‘proximal’ and ‘non-proximal’ areas as viewed from the deictic centre, or in terms of a multiple system that is organised hierarchically and may be divided into primary and secondary systems, which together define fifteen spatial zones around the deictic centre. Beyond spatial proximity, the demonstratives may also encode a number of non-deictic features such as quality, quantity, dimension, preciseness of location, and visibility. This paper distinguishes between six morphosyntactic classes of demonstratives and shows how the different deictic and non-deictic features correlate with their pragmatic uses.

Visual stereotypes constitute a set of tropes through which the Other is described and depicted to anaudience, who perhaps never will encounter the individuals that those tropes purport to represent.Upon the arrival of Muslim Tatar traders in Finland in the late nineteenth century, newspapers andsatirical journals utilized visual stereotypes to identify the new arrivals and draw demarcation linesbetween them and what was considered “Finnish”. The Tatars arrived during a time of tension inthe relationship between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and the Russian Empire, withthe Finnish intelligentsia divided along political and language lines. Stereotypical images of Tatarpedlars were used as insults against political opponents within Finland and as covert criticism ofthe policies of the Russian Empire. Stereotypes about ethnic and religious minorities like the Tatarsfulfilled a political need for substitute enemy images; after Finland became independent in 1917,these visual stereotypes almost disappeared.

The Tatar diaspora in Finland has attracted researchers for over a century, but studies traditionallyfocus on topics such as origins and general Tatar history, religion, identity or language. One of themost important aspects of research on Tatars both historically and today, however, is the transnationalcontext. Migrating from villages in Nizhny Novgorod province, often via the Russian capitalSaint Petersburg at the end of the nineteenth century, the forming Tatar diaspora communities inthe Baltic Sea region maintained, developed and extended their previous networks and also creatednew connections over national borders despite periods of political difficulties. New research aboutTatars in the Baltic Sea region – with the focal point of the Tatars in Finland and their connectionschiefly in Estonia, Russia and Sweden – was presented during a seminar called Tatars in Finland inthe Transnational Context of the Baltic Sea Region at the University of Helsinki in October 2018.Scholars from Finland, Sweden, Russia, Estonia and Hungary spoke about the past and present ofthe diaspora. A result of the seminar, this special issue of Studia Orientalia Electronica is dedicatedto new research on Tatars in a transnational context.

In the 1880s, the arrival of a new group of traders was noted in Finnish- and Swedish-languagenewspapers published in the Grand Duchy of Finland. The newcomers were Muslim Tatars, pettytraders originating in a few villages south of Nizhny Novgorod. They found a livelihood in marketand itinerant trade in the Russian Empire. This article examines depictions of Tatar mobile tradersin the late nineteenth-century press in Finland. While petty trade has left fragmentary traces inhistorical sources, the Finnish National Library’s digital newspaper database offers new possibilitiesto create an overview of how the press depicted relations between the early Tatar itineranttraders and the local sedentary society. Through the concepts of space and practices, the articlediscusses the following topics: fairs as a space for ethnic encounters, Tatar trading practices andinteraction with local customers, the traders’ use of space and tactics in relation to formal regulationand the fairs as a “threatening” space. The article contributes new knowledge on the earlyperiod of Tatar presence in Finland, relatively invisible in previous research, and on the multiethniccharacter of late nineteenth-century petty trade.

The influence of progressive Muslim theologian Musa Jarullah Bigeev (1875–1949) on the Tatarcommunity in Finland during the first half of the twentieth century is the focus of this article. Bigeevwas very popular among the Tatar bourgeoisie in Russia and the diaspora abroad. Already at anearly stage of his career he became widely known as the “Muslim Luther”. We briefly describe thescientific biography of this theologian, his relations with the Tatars in Finland and personal memoriesfrom visiting the country. The main part of the study presents an analysis of the perceptionof his ideas by a few important community leaders in Finland, Weli-Ahmed Hakim, ZinnetullahAhsen Böre and Habibur-Rahman Shakir, as reflected in their correspondence and publications.This article also provides examples of Bigeev’s recommendations to the community on variousissues of their ethno-confessional life, transmitted through letters to its leaders. The recommendationsinclude a range of aspects from the establishment of an organization and development of thecommunity’s education system to questions of religious practice and personal spiritual growth.His ideas contributed to the adaptation of the Tatars to Finnish society and simultaneously to thepreservation of Tatar culture, language and identity.

Saint Petersburg served from the end of the nineteenth century as a transit point for Mishär Tatarsmoving to the Grand Duchy of Finland. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a small communityhad already formed in Finland, but its members maintained regular contacts with their relativesand connections in the Sergach district (Nizhny Novgorod province), Saint Petersburg andother regions. Contrary to common belief, these ties were not interrupted even after the OctoberRevolution of 1917. Throughout most of the 1920s, Tatars and others crossed the Soviet-Finnishborder illegally. Tatars living in independent Finland also sent considerable financial aid to theircontacts in Leningrad with the help of couriers. The nature of the ties between the Tatar emigrants in Finland and the Tatars of Leningrad can beillustrated by the materials of one criminal case. This case was instituted by the Soviet politicalpolice against representatives of the Tatar Muslim community in Leningrad in 1931. Only afterseveral arrests and tightening border control was communication between the Tatars in Finlandand Leningrad interrupted. I suggest that the Mishär Tatars in Leningrad and Finland constituted asingle social and cultural space until the 1930s, when the connections between them were blocked.The ensuing divide had a large impact on the identity of the Tatars living in Finland, who begandeveloping a separate Finnish Tatar identity just a few years after the termination of contacts.

This article gives a brief overview of the narratives used by Estonian Tatars, describing their religiousidentity and changes in the Estonian Muslim community during the past few decades. TheTatars are the founders of the Estonian Islamic Congregation in Tallinn, an organization which hasbeen the main representative of Islamic faith in Estonia for more than half a century. Recently theTatars and the congregation are being challenged by newcomers with other views on Islam. Forinstance, the “Tatar way” of defining religious identity within a family context differs from theway in which Estonian converts and more recent Muslim immigrants see their own religiosity. Thechanges in the Estonian Muslim community and the Estonian Islamic Congregation have influencedthe Tatars in several ways, especially their religious and cultural self-concept. Examples aregiven of how Tatars evaluate and come to terms with the differences and the challenges.

The purpose of this research is to find out the forms of grammatical interference that occur in graduate students of UIN Sunan Kalijaga. Interference is a language disorder that often occurs for language learners. Interference often occurs in all four language skills included in writing skills. Without realizing it, in writing scientific works students still often experience the first language interference, especially in the grammatical field. This research is a qualitative research with descriptive research type. The results found in this study indicate that the grammatical interference still occurs in the writing of graduate students of UIN Sunan Kalijaga. Researchers found 11 grammatical interference with details, 1 interference in the use of isim maushul, 5 interferences in making idahafah, 4 interferences in the use of fi’il (morphology), and 1 interference in the use of hurf.

The article analyses the history of a Festschrift dedicated in 1987 to Ymär Daher (1910–1999), awell-known activist in the Tatar community of Finland. Two aspects of the volume are discussedin detail: why there was an astonishingly high number of Tatar authors from the Soviet Union andwhy one of the Tatar-language articles in the volume was published not in Cyrillic, the officialscript for the language in the Soviet Union, but in Arabic script. The article tries to find answers tothese questions by following the life and the networking activities of the jubilee of the Festschriftand the life of Enže Säġidova (1921–1997), the author of the Arabic-script article in the volume.

This paper discusses the contribution of neuroscience in the development of the Arabic language curriculum of the modern era with the development of a very strategic and practical reconstruction. One of them is the emergence of integration between nation, brain based learning, and character building using a neuroscience approach. The basic point of this study is the right brain functional statement as the basic for developing the Arabic language curriculum. The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding that the learning process of Arabic can be integrated with the neuroscience approach. This type of research used library research with content analysis in the form of descriptive analysis using primary sources in the form of bibliographies and scientific journal articles. The results showed that the application of neuroscience can be implemented in the formulation of Arabic curriculum development with a series; 1) optimization of the right and left brain nerve system; 2) integrating the role of the brain into the educational and psychological basis of cognitive aspects (Arabic substance), psychomotor (mastery of Arabic language skills), and affective (attitudes, values, and characters) into Arabic learning; 3) interconnecting these three aspecs into the nature of the objectives, methods, strategies of learning Arabic. On this basis, neuroscience can be implicated in the standard development of Arabic learning curriculum in the modern era.

This study aims to develop Arabic teaching materials with a communicative approach for MA Muhammadiyah Curup students by analyzing the needs and validation / feasibility of Arabic teaching materials with the communicative approach according to experts' assessments. Researchers develop teaching materials based on this communicative approach aimed at improving students' ability in mastering Arabic which is not only theoretical but also practical and communicative. Data collection techniques using observation, questionnaires, interviews, and documentation. Likert scale is used for questionnaires and qualitative data analysis techniques using data reduction, data display, and verification. The results showed that Arabic teaching materials that have been used are not yet relevant to the needs of students and have not maximally improved students' Arabic speaking skills. The development of Arabic language teaching materials compiled is based on the results of planning and design development with three themes namely Al-Bayanaats Ash-Syakhshiyyah, Al-Hayah fil Usrah, and Al-Murafiq Al-mmAmmah fil Madrasah. This Arabic module has 28 pages. The average value of the validator for the initial design of this Arabic teaching material module is 22.87 with a very good category.

This study aim’s to the Arabic education institutes in Indonesia who think that as-sarhf teaching precedes an-nahw teaching, while others see an-nahw teaching precede pure education, and the two parties forget that the generalization of each of them is not straightforward; the learner from Arabic speakers is not the same as the learner from other speakers, and is specialized in the Arabic language and its literature not like a specialist in other sciences, and it is not correct for these scholars and specialists to be prepared either, but social and professional differences between them are taken into account, so the difference is clear between learning Arabic in its countries and between it in others, as well as between its learning because it is an end and it is because it is a means, which necessitates reviewing some problems the theory of the trade-off between an-nahw and as-sarhf and their teaching for non-Arabic speakers, especially in Indonesia, and we have discussed this issue through a critical approach, and we have come to the conclusion that the solution to obtain competence and integrated language skills is to combine an-nahw and as-sarhf teaching according to certain conditions that go beyond the problems experienced in the development Teaching Arabic in Indonesia, and at the forefront of these problems is reliance on traditional curricula, lack of comprehensive courses and modern teaching methods, as well as insufficient qualification of teachers sufficient and professionally, and relying on courses that do not match the level of Learners and their needs, in addition to the educational content lacking the pedagogical, psychological and cultural linguistic foundations, whether in its choice or its organization.

This collection of 10 articles is from the conference "The Anthropology of Language in Mainland Southeast Asia", held August 19 and 20, 2019 at the University of Sydney.

This article studies about aspects of al-iltifat al-mu’jami as one style of language in the Qur'an. This study aims to reveal the secrets of meaning behind the use of two synonymous words interchangeably in one or more plots of speech. This type of research is a library research with an interdisciplinary approach. In data analysis using content analysis by examining the basic meaning of words that experience al-iltifat, then confirms the meaning through balaghah, syntactic, morphological, and semantic analysis. The results of the research show that there are two different styles of al-iltifat al-mu’jami in the Qur'an, namely: first, the transition of the use of a word to another word that is synonymous in a verse or series of verses in a plot of speech; and second, is the use of two words that are synonymous in a separate surahs in the same speech theme. The transitional use of the word among others is aimed at emphasizing a concept, emphasizing the difference in quality and quantity of something, affirming the nature to be highlighted, expanding the concept being talked, or perfecting the concept that is the theme of the speech. The benefits of studying about al-iltifat al-mu'jami are helping to understand the message of the Qur'an, dismissing the assumptions of the language of the Qur'an, understanding the other side of the miracles of the Qur'an, helping in carrying out a mindfulness towards the Qur'an, and developing insights on various approaches that can be used in developing Qur'anic studies from the linguistic side.

Burmese is a sesquisyllabic language that allows major syllables to be reduced to minor syllables in certain circumstances. This occurs in many compounds, where the first word may reduce its final syllable. Previous descriptions of Burmese have relied on limited data and concluded that this reduction is unpredictable. This paper more thoroughly examines Burmese compounds, distinguishing different types and uncovering patterns in reduction. Reduction only occurs in a certain subset of nominal compounds, and is phonologically sensitive: with extremely few exceptions, only high and level tone syllables reduce, not creaky or checked tone.

شعر تجلی‌گاه تصویرهای شاعرانه و هنری است. این تصویرها با استفاده از علم بیان و شگردها و ابزارهای گوناگون آن شکل می‌گیرد. شاعر عارف با این تصویرها، تجارب عرفانی و مقدمات آن را بازآفرینی می‌کند. از مهم‌ترین ابزارهای این بازآفرینی در ذهن شاعران عارف ازجمله عطار نیشابوری، «تشبیه»، «استعاره» و «تلمیح» است. او در منطق‌الطیر که داستان سفر معنوی مرغان است، برای بیان تجربۀ عرفانی و مقدمات آن، تشبیه را بارها به کار برده و آن را با تلمیح ترکیب کرده است. در مقالۀ حاضر با روش توصیفی- تحلیلی و مروری، ضمن معرفی این ابزارها نشان خواهیم داد که وی در بیان تجارب عرفانی و مقدمات آن از این شگردهای ترکیبی چگونه بهره برده است. در شعر عرفانی، شاعر به دنبال آرایش کلام نیست بلکه یکی از هدف‌های اصلی او بیان تجارب و مکاشفات عرفانی و درونی و مقدمات آن است، به همین سبب تصاویر شعری او متأثر از نگرش دینی و عرفانی اوست. بیشتر تشبیهات و تلمیحات شعر عطار با آیات و قصص قرآن و شخصیت‌های دینی، قرآنی و احادیث و موضوعات دینی مرتبط است و این نشان از تأثیر عمیق دین و عرفان بر سبک شعری و بلاغت گفتار او دارد.

«کاخ اژدها»، نخستین جلد از سه‌گانة «پارسایان و من» اثر «آرمان آرین»، اوّلین رمان اسطوره‌ای و یکی از موفّق‌ترین نمونه‌های رمان فارسی نوجوان است. ارتباط این رمان با متون کهن فارسی و میراث فرهنگی ایران درخور تأمّل است. این پژوهش با هدف نشان‌دادن ارتباط متنی میان رمان «کاخ اژدها» و متون پیش از آن با روش توصیفی‌تحلیلی انجام‌شده‌است. برای این منظور رویکرد بیش‌متنیت، یکی از ارکان نظریة ترامتنیت «ژرار ژنت» به‌عنوان چارچوب نظری این جستار برگزیده‌ شد. در بیش‌متنیت، هرگونه تأثیر متنی از متن دیگر مورد بررسی ‌قرار می‌گیرد. روابط بین متون در بیش‌متنیت، نباید از نوع هم‌حضوری و تفسیری باشد؛ بلکه برگرفتگی متون ملاک است. یافته‌های تحقیق حکایت از ارتباط وسیع رمان کاخ اژدها با متون پیش از خود به‌ویژه شاهنامه دارد. این ارتباط بر اساس مؤلّفه‌های بیش‌متنیت، بیشتر از نوع همانگونگی است تا تراگونگی؛ اگرچه هر 3 فرایند تراگونگی یعنی جابه‌جایی، افزایش و کاهش نیز در این اثر مشاهده می‌شود که از این میان فرایند کاهش از بسامد بالاتری برخوردار است.

پارادوکس به‌عنوان یک آرایۀ بدیعی در ادبیات فارسی، یکی از عوامل زیبایی و برجسته‌سازی در آثار ادبی محسوب می‌شود. عطار از این آرایۀ ادبی به‌فراوانی در آثار خود استفاده نموده است. این پژوهش در نظر دارد تا کاربرد این آرایۀ بدیعی را در منطق‌الطیر و روان‌شناسی یونگ بررسی و تحلیل نماید. مطابق نتایج، عطار به یاری سیمرغ و یونگ به کمک کهن‌الگوی خویشتن هر دو در جستجوی تکامل و رشد انسانی؛ یعنی کل یکپارچه‌اند و کل یکپارچه پارادوکس‌بنیاد است؛ زیرا از نیروهای متضاد هستی تشکیل شده است؛ نیروهایی چون نیک و بد، عالم صغیر و عالم کبیر، جزء و کل و ماده و مینو (وحدت اضداد) که ناظر به یکپارچگی و تعادل دو جنبۀ وجود، یعنی «جسم و روان» (سی مرغ یا خودآگاه‌ + سیمرغ یا ناخودآگاه) است که به مقام وحدت تعبیر می‌شود؛ نتیجۀ این وحدت، فناست و این فنا در آن واحد، بقاست در ابعاد دیگر هستی. در نتیجۀ چنین تمامیت پارادوکس‌بنیاد است که عارف کل‌نکر و تمامیت‌جو در «قرن‌های بی‌زمان» به سر می‌برد، «درون سایه آفتاب می‌بیند»، «در بی‌خویشی به خویش» می‌رسد و «در عدم به وجود» دست می‌یابد.

شکی در این نیست که بخشی از بن‌مایه‌های صور خیال شاعران و نویسندگان، تحت تأثیر محیط و قلمرو جغرافیایی آن‌ها شکل می‌گیرد و به نوعی در آثار ادبی آن‌ها انعکاس و بازتاب می‌یابد. این تأثیرپذیری در نویسندگان و شاعران با توجه به روحیّۀ لطیف و حسّاسی که دارند، بیشتر از دیگران بوده است. بر این اساس، پژوهش حاضر در پی پاسخ بدین سؤال است که آیا خاقانی شروانی نیز از زبان و فرهنگ محیط زندگی خود، آذربایجان، تأثیر و تأثر پذیرفته است؟ سرزمینی که خاقانی در آن رشد و زندگی کرده است، علاوه بر وجود اقوامِ تُرک در آن، خود نیز تحت حکومت فرمانروایان تُرک اداره می‌شده است. پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که زبان ترکی و محیط و فرهنگ آذربایجان به انحای مختلف در آثار خاقانی بازتاب یافته است؛ علاوه بر حضور مستقیم تعداد بی‌شماری از لغات ترکی، تمثیلات و کنایات ترجمه‌شده از ترکی، باورها و اعتقادات مردمی و محیط آذربایجان در آثار شاعر تأثیر جدّی نهاده و مبنای خلق بسیاری از مضامین و تصاویر شعری وی شده است تا حدی که بدون توجه بدین امر، بخشی از ظرایف و مفاهیم ابیات دیوان خاقانی به‌درستی قابل‌درک و تبیین نیست.

عمدۀ مختصات زبان در شاهنامۀ فردوسی، بر گفت‌وگو محوری استوار است، در جوار این گفتارها، ‌با خودگویی شخصیّت‌ها نیز مواجه می‌شویم. نقش خودگویی، برای گفت‌وگوهای تنهایی به ‌کار می‌رود و شیوه‎ای از روایت است که تجربیّات عاطفیِ شخصیّت‌های داستان، در سطوح مختلف ذهن، نشان داده می‌شود و به جریان سیّال ذهن نزدیک است. این مرحلۀ پیش از گفتار، زمزمۀ درونی است که شخصیت برای تبیین موقعیّت‌ها و ارائۀ ذهن خویش، از آن بهره می‌برد. زبان و خودگویی در ادبیّات، دو نظام نشانگی است و سعی دارد محتویات ذهن شخصیت را به تصویر بکشد. خودگویی‌ در شاهنامه، تولید معنا می‌کند و دارای کاربردهای مفهومی است. در این مقاله از منظر پیوند ادبیات با روان‌شناسی، ابیات مربوط به خودگویی در شاهنامه با دو روش پژوهشی کیفی و کمّی تبیین شده است که بیانگر ارتباط معناداری، بین خودگویی و شخصیّت‌پردازی، در شاهنامۀ فردوسی است. نتیجه آن‌که خودگویی‌‌ها در کنش‌گری‌ شخصیت‌ها که شامل کردار، اقدام یا مقابله هستند، برخوردی منفعلانه، نشان دادند. به این معنا که در خود‌گویی؛ بیان اندیشه و مافی‌الضمیر صورت گرفته و ارتباط مستحکمی میان خودگویی و کنش و واقعۀ بعد از خودگویی وجود ندارد و به عبارتی، از جانب شخصیت، کنشی متفاوت و منفعلانه انجام می‌گیرد که اغلب در تضاد با خودگویی است که زمزمه کرده است. در حالی‌که ارتباط وجوه و لایه‌های شخصیت و نمایاندن مکنونات شخصیت به وسیلۀ خودگویی به مراتب مؤثرتر و شفاف‌تر نمودار شده است. در این مسیر، خودآگاهی هم جریان می‌یابد و ترسیم بهتر شخصیّت‌پردازی رخ می‌دهد. در تحلیل محتوا مشخص شد، خودگوترین شخصیت شاهنامه با (۲۳) بیت رستم و سپس به ترتیب سیاوش (۲۰) بیت و کی‌کاووس (۱۸بیت)، خودگوترین شخصیت‌ها هستند.

تقابل‌های دوگانه و ساختارشکنانه در رمان‌های زن‌نوشته، با دست‌یابی به زبان و ویژگی‌های اصلی، با کاربرد فرهنگ و ایدئولوژی خاص زنانه در آثار ادبی سروکار دارد. این نوع نقد در آثار داستانی به دو شیوه انجام می‌شود: نخست، جلوه‌های زن که شخصیت و نقش زن را در داستان پررنگ می‌کند. دوم، نقد زنان که در آن به زنان نویسنده و آثار زن‌نوشته توجه می‌شود. رمان «این خیابان سرعت‌گیر ندارد» اثر مریم جهانی، یکی از رمان‌های زن‌محوری است که در سال‌های اخیر با دغدغۀ بررسی دنیای زنان جای خود را در میان رمان‌های معاصر فارسی باز کرده است. با توجه به اهمیت این رمان در جریان رمان‌های زن‌نوشته در ادبیات داستانی پس از انقلاب، این جستار به شیوۀ توصیفی- تحلیلی، مبتنی بر عناصر ساختارشکنی تلاش کرده است به واکاوی عناصر زن‌نوشته‌های ادبیات معاصر در این رمان بپردازد و به این نتیجه دست یافته است که این رمان مدرنیستی به شیوۀ ساختارشکنانه در پی ایجاد تردید در تقابل دوگانۀ مرد و زن است. ازاین‌جهت، شخصیت‌های زن داستان موقعیت و هویت زنانۀ خویش را محصول روابط اجتماعی تحمیلی مردسالار می‌دانند که مردان و اقتدار زبان مردانه برایشان آفریده است. زبان نوشتاری متن به سبب انعکاس باورها، جهان‌بینی و عواطف زنانه، برجسته کردن تظلم زنانه در تقابل با مرد، توجه به حس بیزاری و هراس در زنان، حس استقلال زنانه، اعتراض به نگاه سرکوبگر مردانه و پاسخ به آن با شعار «من یک زنم، اما می‌توانم بهتر از یک مرد باشم» و غیره، تلاشی برای رسیدن به سبک زن‌نوشتاری به شمار می‌رود.

عطّار که انسی مستمر با قرآن کریم و احادیث داشته برابر مشرب فکری و نوع نگاه خویش، به نحوی گسترده به تأویل آیات و احادیث دست یازیده است. او در این فرآیند علاوه بر تأویل‌های ساده‌ساختار و تک بعدی، تأویل‌های چند بعدی (منشوری) هم دارد؛ به این صورت که او بارها و از مناظر مختلف به یک موضوع قرآنی یا روایی نگاه کرده و هر بار تأویلی متفاوت از آن موضوع واحد ارائه نموده است. این ویژگی که از مختصّات سبکی وی به شمار می‌رود، با عنوان «تأویل منشوری» موضوع این پژوهش است. از سوی دیگر با مطالعۀ آثار منظوم عطّار به روشنی دریافت می‌شود که او در این آثار، نگاهی خاص به فرآیند آفرینش آدم و هبوط او به زمین دارد. حال این پرسش مطرح می‌شود که نوع نگاه او به «هبوط آدم از درگاه حق» چگونه است و چه ساختاری دارد؟ پژوهش حاضر بر پایۀ روش توصیف (descriptive) و تحلیل محتوا (contentanalysis)، پاسخی برای این پرسش ارائه کرده­است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهند که مجموعه تأویل‌های ارائه شده دربارۀ هبوط آدم، افزون براین که بیانگر نگاه منشوری عطّار به ماجرای هبوط آدم هستند، مجموعه‌ای را تشکیل می‌دهند که می‌توان آن را تأویل خوشه‌ای نامید.

ادبیات و اجتماع تأثیر متقابلی بر یکدیگر دارند و ادبیات را می‌توان بازتاب واقعیت‌های اجتماعی دانست. یکی از جلوه‌های تأثیرگذاری،‌ تأثیری است که نظام طبقاتی و حکومت استبدادی بر اجتماع و روابط افراد می‌گذارد و ادبیات به‌عنوان اصلی‌ترین نمود اجتماعی آن را در خود بازتاب می‌دهد. نظام طبقاتی (سلسله‌مراتبی) یک سیستم فراگیر اجتماعی است که در آن مردم به چند طبقۀ مجزا تقسیم می‌شوند و بر اساس آن عده‌ای خود را برخوردار از حقوق کامل شهروندی دانسته و مابقی را از ابتدایی‌ترین حقوق محروم می‌سازند. پذیرش و تأکید بر تفاوت، اختلاف، تضاد، و به‌طورکلی نابرابری از ویژگی‌های چنین نظامی است. چنین نظامی منجر به شکل‌گیری حکومت استبدادی می‌شود که مؤلفه‌های آن تقدّس پادشاه و تک‌گویی است و شاکله آن را ترس تشکیل می‌دهد. این نظام بر نگرش‌ها و اعتقادات، خلق‌وخوی افراد، و شیوه بیان مطالب تأثیر می‌گذارد؛ به گونه‌ای که زبان ادبی به‌سوی بیان غیرمستقیم و پند و اندرز گرایش می‌یابد و سمت‌وسوی توصیه‌ها نیز در خدمت تأمین منافع و مصالح طبقه حاکم و قدرتمند جامعه قرار می‌گیرد. اندرزنامه‌های سیاسی که با هدف تأثیرگذاری بر رفتار سیاسی حاکمان تدوین شده‌اند می‌توانند محمل مناسبی برای بازتاب این نوع از ساختار اجتماعی و نظام حکومتی باشند. ازاین‌رو، این مقاله سعی دارد با شیوه‌ای تحلیلی‌توصیفی به بررسی این تأثیرات و بازتاب آن در برجسته‌ترین متون تعلیمی نثر فارسی که عمدتاً ذیل اندرزنامه‌های سیاسی قرار می‌گیرند، بپردازد.

بزرگ‌ترین کردار داستان­های حماسی- اساطیری، اژدهاکشی است. در روایت­های ملّی- پهلوانیِ ایران غیر از یلان سیستان شماری از شاهان نیز با اژدها، موجودات اژدهافش یا اژدهایانِ پیکرگردانیده می­ستیزند و آنها را می­کشند یا در بند می­کنند. کیخسروِ کیانی هم یکی از این شهریاران است که در مآخذِ معروف و روایات متداول دربارۀ او، به اژدها اوژنی شناخته شده نیست امّا داستان رویارویی وی با اژدها روایت اصیل و کهنی است که پیشینۀ آن احتمالاً به منابعِ ایرانِ پیش از اسلام می­رسد و دو گزارشِ متفاوت از آن در منابعِ عربی و فارسی بازمانده است. گزارش نخست در سنی ملوک­الارض و الانبیای حمزۀ اصفهانی و سپس همایون­نامۀ زجّاجی و تاریخ گزیده و نزهت­القلوب مستوفی است که در آن کیخسرو اژدهایی را در کوه کوشید مابین فارس و اصفهان می­کشد و دیگری، روایتِ واحدِ تاریخ قم که این پادشاه برای دفع زیانکاریِ اژدها به منطقۀ قم می­آید و اژدها از دست او می­­گریزد. داستان اژدهاکشیِ کیخسرو به دلیلِ نیامدن در متون مهم و تأثیرگذاری چون شاهنامه و تاریخ طبری و نیز برجسته­تر بودنِ وجهِ قدسی و معنویِ این شاه نسبت به جنبۀ پهلوانی و جنگاوریِ او، ناشناخته و به­دور از توجّه مانده است.

اعتقاد به اصالت «لفظ» یا «معنا» یکی از موضوعات بحث‌انگیز در سنّت ادبی و بلاغی ما بوده است؛ این‌که در شکل‌گیری آثار هنری، باید اعتبار و برجستگی را از آنِ شکل و صورت دانست یا محتوا، در طول اعصار و قرون، بحث درازدامنی را در میان طرفداران این دو دیدگاه به بار آورده است. این کشمکش پایان‌ناپذیر در عصر صفویّه یعنی دورۀ اوج و شکوفایی نقد ادبی و دانش سبک‌شناختی با نکته‌سنجی و دقت نظر و عمق دانش ناقدان ادبی تداوم می‌یابد؛ علاوه‌ بر آن در شعر سبک هندی نیز که یکی از مهم‌ترین عرصه‌های مباحث بلاغی، نقد ادبی و سبک‌شناسی بوده است، در کنار بسیاری از مسائل جدّی و تازۀ ادبی، توجّه به اصالت «لفظ» یا «معنا» جلوۀ ویژه‌ای دارد. اگر در اشعار صائب، بلیغ‌ترین شاعر سبک هندی، مفاهیمی چون «لفظ پاکیزه»، «لفظ غریب»، «لفظ پرداخته»، «معنی تازه»، «معنی نازک»، «معنی بیگانه»، «معنی رنگین» و «توأمانی لفظ و معنی» با بسامد بسیار بالایی دیده می‌شود، گذشته از اهمیّت موضوع برای شاعر، نباید از مضمون‌سازی و ایجاد روابط تناظری پیچیده و اعجاب‌آور او با این مفاهیم غافل باشیم. این پژوهش ضمن اشاره به سابقۀ بحث اصالت «لفظ» یا «معنا»، تحلیلی است از رویکرد سه‌گانۀ صائب در این موضوع که اغلب از خلق مضمون‌های غریب و باریک خالی نیست.

سبک‌شناسی انتقادی رویکرد جدیدی است که ریشه در زیبایی‌شناسی انتقادی دارد و به تأثیر از دیدگاه‌های مکتب فرانکفورت پدید آمده است. بررسی متغیرهای سبکی یک متن از منظر انتقادی به کشف ایدئولوژی متن و چگونگی رابطة متن با مرکز سلطه منتهی می‌شود. در اشعار شاملو از منظر سبک‌شناسی انتقادی لایة کاربردشناختی و لایة بلاغی و واژگانی قابل‌بررسی هستند. ذیل لایة کاربردشناسی به بررسی دو متغیر سبکی تکثیر معنا و نوع نگاه هنجارشکن شاملو به اسطوره‌ها پرداخته شده و تحلیل این شاخصه‌ها به یاری نظریة زیبایی‌‌شناسی انتقادی صورت پذیرفته است. ذیل لایة‌ بلاغی و واژگانی دو متغیر سبکی باستان‌گرایی و تکرار مورد واکاوی قرار گرفته که از منظر زیبایی‌شناسی انتقادی این شاخصه‌ها در خدمت هنجارگریزی زمانی و تقبیح الگوی قدرت در دوران مدرن و نفی سلطه و سرکوب قرار می‌گیرند. در این بررسی‌ها، اشعار شاملو در موضعی نفی‌گرا نسبت به مرکز سلطه قرار دارند. او به یاری شاخصه‌های سبکی، تک‌ساحتی شدن انسان مدرن و الگوی قدرت در جوامع معاصر را نقد می‌کند.

تصویر به‌عنوان بخشی از پیام، واسطۀ عاطفی گوینده و مخاطب است. بررسی اجزای سازندۀ تصویر و تأثیری که بر مخاطب می‌گذارد، می‌تواند ما را از میزان هیجان و عاطفۀ شاعر آگاه کند؛ تنوّع و پویایی تصویر، موجب ماندگاری آن در ذهن مخاطب و در نتیجه انتقال بیشتر عاطفه می‌گردد. در این مقاله ابتدا به نقد و بررسی نظریه‌های مرتبط با عاطفه و تصویر و تأثیر متقابل آن‌ها بر یکدیگر و بر مخاطب، پرداخته شده است. سپس انواع تصاویر زبانی، حرکتی و صوتی، تصاویر متحرک و استحاله در محور عمودی خیال، هم‌ذات‌پنداری از طریق تصویر و همچنین اجزای تشکیل دهندۀ تصویر؛ مانندِ افعال، تصویرواژه‌ها و پیوند آن‌ها با عاطفه و هیجان مولوی در غزلیات شمس بررسی شده است. مولوی بر خلاف نظریه‌هایی که ایماژ زبانی را نازل می‌داند و تصاویر حسّی را سطحی، توانسته است با این نوع تصاویر هم عمق عاطفه و هیجان خود را به نمایش بگذارد و هم به اعماق جان مخاطب راه یابد.

احمد محمود نویسنده‌ای اقلیم‌گرا و رئالیست است که آثارش از طُرق مختلف با تاریخ، حوادث و اشخاص تاریخی ارتباط ‌یافته است. «همسایه‌ها» نخستین رمان این نویسنده است که درونمایۀ آن با تلفیقی از مستندات تاریخی، تخیل و خاطراتِ نویسنده تکوین یافته است. «همسایه‌ها» در عین داشتنِ خصوصیات یک روایت داستانی، مثل دیگر رمان‌های محمود، به روایتِ واقع‌نگارانۀ یک رویداد مهم تاریخی پرداخته است. جریان «ملی شدن صنعت نفت در ایران» پی‌رنگِ این رمان است و این حادثۀ تاریخی، نقشی محوری در شاکلۀ آن دارد. ماجراها و مناسباتِ بخش عمده‌ای از رمان «همسایه‌ها» با این رویداد تاریخی، پیوند محتوایی و ساختاری یافته است. در این مقاله، بازتاب و انعکاس این رویداد و حوادث مربوط به آن در رمان «همسایه‌ها»، هم‌چنین رویکرد و داوری تاریخیِ نویسنده مورد تأمل و بررسی قرار گرفته است. طی آن، شیوۀ بازسازی تاریخ و همانندی و تفاوت‌های آن با مستندات تاریخی تبیین شده است.

Prior work has suggested that proto-Rma was a non-tonal language and that tonal varieties underwent tonogenesis (Liú 1998, Evans 2001a-b). This paper re-examines the different arguments for the tonogenesis hypothesis and puts forward subgroup-internal and subgroup-external evidence for an alternative scenario in which tone, or its phonetic precursors, was present at the stage of proto-Rma. The subgroup-internal evidence comes from regular correspondences between tonal varieties. These data allow us to put forward a working hypothesis that proto-Rma had a two-way tonal contrast. Furthermore, existing accounts of how tonogenesis occurred in the tonal varieties are shown to be problematic. The subgroup-external evidence comes from regular tonal correspondences to two closely related tonal Trans-Himalayan subgroups: Prinmi, a modern language, and Tangut, a mediaeval language attested by written records from the 11th – 16th century. Regular correspondences among the tonal categories of these three subgroups, combined with the Rma-internal evidence allow us to more confidently reconstruct tone for proto-Rma.