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After the establishment and spread of the Shiite religion, the sanctity of the tombs of Imams and Imamzadehs in the holy shrines of Aliaat, Mashhad, Qom, Rey, etc. increased in the Shiite community of Iran. This issue was very popular among the affluent and the sadat. The desire to be buried next to these tombs turned into a spiritual and social value for these people. However, the transfer of the deceased bodies to the desired location was tough, mainly due to the distance and transportation problems. This article, following the descriptive-analytical method and through conducting interview (oral history), seeks to answer the following questions: 1) what difficulties did Sadat Husseini face in Dehdasht to transfer the body of the deceased to the tomb?2) what measures were taken to overcome the problem? According to the findings of research, this family did their best to transfer the body to the holy shrines to show their deep and sincere beliefs. They put the corpse in dakme (Temporary grave) and while observing religious customs, care was taken to protect the corpse against decomposition. Dakme was not architecturally beautiful and was only used to keep the corpse for a certain period of time.

In southern India, forming the Deccan Shiite governments (1098-895 AH / 1687-1489 AD), which was simultaneous with the Safavid reign in Iran, resulted in incremental Iranians’ immigration to this region. Among immigrants, Iranian Shiite physicians, due to their high medical knowledge and considerable skill, along with the support of the Shiite rulers, enhanced their status and settled in areas under the control of those governments, contributing to the festive medical production and developments there. The main objective of this research is to investigate the effect of the Iranian Shiite physicians, who migrated to the Deccan region, on the Shiite governments' medical advancements. The research hypothesis is that the Iranian physicians developed medicine by establishing Dar al-Shifa (medical schools and hospitals) and teaching and authoring medical books in Persian. Moreover, upon the invitation and support of the Adil Shahi, Nizam Shahi, and Qutb Shahi Shiite rulers, they were appointed as special physicians in the court, resulting in the flourishing and advancement of medical sciences in those areas. The research employed a descriptive-analytical research method and collected data by library resources.

Hippocratic treatises are early text of medicine, compiled by several scholars, collectively known as Hippocratic Corpus. For the first times in history, Hippocrates rejects the divine theory of disease and laid-down the foundation of scientific medicine. Diseases were described on natural causes. They proposed humoral theory of diseases. According to this theory, there are four humors in the body. Harmony among these humors constitutes a good health. Age, sex, season, diet and regime affect the production of humors and impart their effect on the condition of body. Various ways were adopted for categorization and classification of diseases, making medical studies easier. In these treatises, diseases were broadly categorized based on age, sex and population distribution. Nomenclature of disease was also based upon the name of diseased organ, dominating symptom, etiology and its resemblance with the thing and phenomenon in outer world. This study is focused on understanding Hippocratic classification and categorization of diseases.

In Iranian medical history, renowned physicians have emerged, some of whom are not well known. Mohammad-Reza Tabib Shirazi is an Iranian physician and chemist, who in the golden age of Iranian history and culture civilization - during the Baburi Empire (Mughal Empire of India) - emigrated to India and there, he created his work called Riyadh Alamgiri. This book is counted as his masterpiece in the field of pharmacology, introducing and identifying simple or compound medications. This article is aimed at introducing the scientific character and work of this physician and pharmacist.

The programme for combatting venereal diseases in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany (SOZ), the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the Polish Peoples’ Republic (PPR) after the Second World War was adopted from the Soviet healthcare model. In order to maintain the spread of infections, both countries introduced specific legislation. The analysis of the regulations shows several similarities, such as establishment of easy access to anti-venereal health services, interruption of the chain of infection, and special treatment of individuals who constituted a danger of spreading the infection through compulsory hospitalisation. However, some differences are also visible. In the PPR, the decision about compulsory hospitalisation was left to individual evaluation of the attending physician. Closed venereology facilities or reformatories for treatment of venereal diseases, which existed in the GDR, were not established through legal regulations in the PPR. Since 1964, Polish law specifically targeted prostitutes and alcoholics as sources of spreading venereal diseases. These groups were not mentioned in the German legal acts. Analysis of praxis of compulsory commitment in the SOZ and GDR shows that mostly young women characterized as “drifters” were sent to closed venereology wards with breach of legal regulations. The number of prostitutes constituted only a very small fraction. In the PPR, the data from contemporary literature also indicates a considerable number of young women, the so-called “drifters”, committed to venereology ward.

The Iranian cultural attitude of Samanid epoch, on top of their attention to various sciences, led to the emergence of some scientific works in Persian in this era. Under this circumstance, Al-Akhawayni Bokhari wrote the first medical book in Persian entitled Hidayat Al-Muta’allemin fi Al-Tibb. In his book, in addition to his own experiences, he benefited from the experiences of ancient physicians. This helped him to move the medical knowledge forward; he, in fact, wrote a ground piece of work in this area. This paper investigated the content of this book and revealed that the author was proficient and expert in ancient scientific resources. Taking advantage of these resources and adding his own experiences to them, he wrote a comprehensive medical book in the Islamic era. As such, in addition to various innovations employed in the book, it is shown to be an outstanding work, firstly because the book was written in Persian, known as the first Persian medical book in the Islamic era and secondly because the book took an empirical and deductive approach.

One of the most important conditions for the development of medical and pharmacological knowledge in human societies is the availability of drugs. In the past, the most important and widely used types of medications were medicinal herbs. The trade in herbal medicines, imported mainly from India, China, and Southeast Asia, flourished in Fars in the eighth and ninth centuries AH. Examination of the writings of prominent Shirazi physicians and pharmacists, such as Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi, Haji Zain Al-Attar and Muhammad ibn Abdullah Lari, showed that the development of pharmacological knowledge in Fars in the eighth and ninth centuries AH was mainly due to the availability and trade of herbal medicines. The medicine trade was reflected in the poems of Kamal Ghias and Boshaq Atameh Shirazi, the poets of the eighth and ninth centuries AH, as well. This research, based on a descriptive-analytical method and library sources, seeks to find out how the trade of single herbal medicament was in Fars in the eighth and ninth centuries AH and what effects it had on the development of pharmacological knowledge. The findings indicate that the prosperity of the single herbal medicine trade played an important role in the development of the Fars medical school in the mentioned centuries.

The transfer of medicine through the Northern roads of the Persian Gulf to the shores and backshores of the Persian Gulf has a long history. In the history of post-Islamic Iran, al-Buwayh was the first government who facilitated the transfer of medicine from the Northern and Southern ports of the Persian Gulf to Shiraz. The emirs of this dynasty, especially Adud al-Dawla, played an important role in transporting medicine from the Northern and Southern ports of the Persian Gulf to Shiraz by making the roads safe. The present study, by performing a library research and following a descriptive-analytic method, seeks to find out, firstly, what the most important routes of drug transfer from the Persian Gulf ports to Shiraz were, and secondly, what the rulers of Al-Buwayh did for the security of the roads from the Northern Persian Gulf to Shiraz. The research findings indicate that, in the Al-Buwayh era, imported medicines (such as Cinnamon, Barbahar, and Alpinia officinarum(khosrodaro) were used to be first unloaded in Sohar and Siraf ports and then be transferred to Shiraz through three important highways.

The land of Andalusia was part of Dar al-Islam for about eight hundred years, and the prosperity of Islamic culture and civilization in this land made it one of the most brilliant scientific centers in the world, radiating knowledge all over Europe. Since the Muslim rulers of Andalusia strived to promote science and knowledge in this land, Andalusia turned to a territory in the period of Islamic civilization in which famous physicians, pharmacists and botanists were raised. Among them was Ibn Wafid Lakhmi, an Andalusian physician, pharmacologist and botanist who, while practicing medicine, also paid special attention to the subject of pharmacology and the cultivation of medicinal plants.Ibn Wafid treated patients with his own therapeutic and medicinal methods and with his numerous works and writings in the field of medicine, pharmacology and botany, he played an important role in expanding the scientific and civilizational boundaries of Islam in the field of these sciences. Ibn Wafid Andalusia, by training prominent students, was influential in the transmission of medical sciences, especially pharmacological and botanical knowledge, in the Islamic and world civilizations. The research method of this article is descriptive-analytical and the main question of the research is that what the role and function of Ibn Wafid Lakhmi as an Andalusian was in expanding the borders of medical sciences, pharmacology and botany in the Islamic civilization.

Cataract is mentioned as one of the most important blindness factors in the world. Management and treatment methods of cataract dates back to antiquity. Avicenna is one of prominent Persian scientists that played an important role in the development of ophthalmology in ancient Persia. In this review, Avicenna’s points of view about cataract is discussed in the Canon of medicine and compared with the current medicine. Cataract or “Nozol-al-maâ” is an obstructive disease due to the accumulation of a dense liquid layer between the lens and cornea. Avicenna categorized cataracts based on their density, size and color. To treat and manage cataract, he took three approaches: changing life style and nutrition in the first step; using simple and complex medicines in the next step; and performing surgery in the last stage. Nowadays, in vivo and in vitro studies have proven the effects of some food, nutraceuticals and medicinal plants in preventing cataractogenesis progression. As surgery is the only remedy of cataract today and postoperative problems may occur, finding new non-surgical procedures can be noteworthy.

Persian Constitutional Revolution, in addition to changing the political and social structures of Iran, challenged the dominant discourse of traditional medicine. In the new approach to medical life, the government, physicians, and the educated class paid special attention to the issue of personal health and the need to diagnose diseases and their complications. Furthermore, they place special emphasis on disease prevention rather than treatment. To accomplish this, each took a particular mission. With the rise of journalism in post-constitutional Iran, they played a crucial role in advancing modern medical goals and educating people. In the present study, through the lens of a modern approach to journalism in medicine, taking an analytical approach, an attempt has been made to examine the mission of the Bidari newspaper to the issue of modern health and medicine in Kerman during the first Pahlavi period (1304-1320 SH/ 1925-1941 AD). Findings show that, to inform the public, the most important missions of the newspaper comprise putting emphasis on healthy living by identifying the types of common diseases in Kerman and the way to deal with them through paying attention to the principles of prevention and introducing governmental regulations in the field of medicine.

Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible progressive brain disorder which slowly affects memory and thinking skills and also the ability to carry out the simple tasks. Unani system of medicine has a history of clinical experience and rich traditional knowledge in the management of neuro-degenerative disorders. Unani Physicians, like Ali Ibn-e-Abbas Majusi (930-994 AD), in his book Kamilus sana; Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya Razi (850-925 AD), in Al Hawi; Sheikh-ur-Rais Ibn-e-Sina (980-1037), in his book Al-Qanoon fit tib; Ibn-e-Hobal Baghdadi (1122-1213), in Kitab-al-Mukhtarat fit tib; Abul Hasan Ahmed bin Muhammad Tabri (11th century), in Al Moalijat-e-Buqratiya; Azam Khan (19th century), in his book Rumooz-e-Azam have described conditions called Fasad-e-Zikr and Nisyan which are characterized by the loss of memory, resembling Alzheimer’s disease. They have not only mentioned its etiology and pathogenesis but also designed a specific line of treatment. These references can be traced up till Buqrat (Hippocrates) 377-460 B.C. and Jaalinoos (Galen) 130-200 AD.

In the lexicographic texts as well as in veterinary resources and specialized books on horses, the Islamic civilization period has focused on the types of sounds heard from horses; the concept of sounds has been explained as well. Exposure of horses to some infectious diseases affects their larynx in such a way that this consequently changes the animals’ sound. Laryngeal problems in horses have been identified in ancient veterinary medicine by examining or hearing how the horse whines. The methods of identifying laryngeal problems and changes in the sound of the infected horses have been mentioned in ancient veterinary and specialized horse books in detail (FARASNAMEH- BEITAREHNAMEH, etc.). The purpose of this study was to conceptually obtain and classify the sounds of an infected horse followed by identifying its laryngeal problems that altered its natural sound.This is a qualitative research article used to describe and document the analysis methods. Using the designed vocabulary keyword, references were searched in the veterinary, and some other medical literature resources, followed by employing various stages of content analysis method. Findings: Horses produce various sounds that include: Hamhameh, Sahil, Wahvaheh, Rahraheh, Shakhir, Nakhir, Karir, Dhabh, etc. For example, Sahil is divided in two: Salsaleh and Jaljaleh. For each of these voices, the meaning has been mentioned in the respective books. While infected, the animal’s voice is altered due to damage to the larynx, a vital member of the horse’s sound production. This impairs the horse’s communication with the rider or trainer.The findings showed that during the period of Islamic civilization, special attention was paid to horses. A variety of sounds produced by the animals were named, and their meanings were explained. Other unrelated Larynx problems also causing altered sounds due to laryngeal injuries were considered as independent illnesses, which they can be documented and read afterward.In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive description of the identification and interpretation of sounds produced by horses in the history of the Islamic era. Also, further research in this field can determine the capability of veterinary knowledge in the Islamic regions more than before.

The goal of this article is to summarize the current status of medical history research conducted from 2010 to 2019, following Shin Dongwon's research covering 2000-2010 regarding the current status of Korean pre-modern medical history. The list of references is organized according to several principles. The representative subjects of the Korean Society for the History of Medicine and the Korean Society of Medical history are Korean Journal of Medical History and The Journal of Korean Medical History, and Yonsei Journal of Medical History of the Yonsei University Medical History Institute. Subsequently, "Reviews and Prospects" of the History Journal and "Korean History Research Report" of the National History Compilation Committee are also summarized, and "Medical History Company Research," which was recently published by the Medical History Research Society, is also included. Unlike previous periods, many studies have been conducted on the topic, and the characteristics of the system are largely classified. Most notably, the medical data related to carriers that were concentrated in the early 2010s. It is also worth noting that the research on the agenda, including Lee Soo-gi's newly discovered agenda, is also increasing. In addition, studies that combine the history of medicine with women's history and intellectual history as interdisciplinary studies have been increasing. As such, this is an opportunity for future medical history research to expand the horizon.

In almost all fields of knowledge, whatever advancement is seen today is not entirely new. In fact, present advancement is based on ancillary knowledge. Even the idea of computer is also conceived from the ancillary knowledge. The same is the case with medical knowledge. Today a vast advancement in neuroscience and neurotechnology is seen. It is thought that present form of neurology resulted from day and night efforts of neuroscientists of present day. But the case is little different. The efforts of the present-day neuroscientists are appreciable but efforts made by the predecessor neuroscientists should not be ignored. As a matter of fact, a treasure of knowledge descended from early Greek, Persian, Roman, Arab and Indian scientists, especially in the field of medical science. In the present paper, an effort is made to present the ancillary knowledge of external senses as it was described by the Greek, Persian, Roman and Arab scholars. Simultaneously, comparative notes are also incorporated. This paper would help the reader to know about how much was known and how much is added to the knowledge of the external sense. By this, one can realize between the accuracy of logical imagination and of technological information.

Medical knowledge and its scientific and practical experience have long been important among countries with longstanding backgrounds. One of the most important branches of medical science is the science of anatomy, which has contributed to the treatment of unknown diseases and the surgery of the organs of the body. Among the medical anatomy versions, those who have used body anatomy imaging have been more successful in conveying concepts and medical education and treatment of diseases. Since the Renaissance, great painters such as De Vinci or Jan van Calkar have had a grand interest in anatomical imagery and have presented a particular style. In Iran, some medical manuscripts, such as Mansouri’s Anatomy Book or Akbari Medicine, have a specific anatomy of the body. The purpose of this article is to study the anatomy of the human body in some medical versions of the West and Iran illustrated. For this purpose, several specimens of medical prescription manuscripts are selected as examples. In Western versions, the design and presentation of components of the body are very influential in the style of Greek and Roman sculpture, and the figures are statuesque. But in Persian versions, the anatomical figures have a flexible body and no contractual dry state.

Namazi Behbudistan

In the 2010s, research on modern history of medicine in Korea has yielded notably outcomes. There have been social historical inquiries investigating the organic relationship between medicine and society, and there has been a study overcoming the traditional nationalistic dichotomous approach. A social historical perspective has been used to analyze the issues of knowledge and politics; the time period of its application was clustered around the colonial period. The condition of colonialism is both important and convenient for analyzing how and to what extent medicine, which is usually deemed neutral, contains a will of authority. Building on existing research, an attempt to understand a subject based on a combination of various elements or from various angles is needed. Accumulating empirical data is important to further advance related research. It is necessary to verify the accuracy of basic facts and build up verified facts. Sometimes theories are applied to research on the history of medicine. However, they are merely a passive application of existing theories and fail to lead to modification and fortification of the theories based on the case of Korea, let alone the establishment of an independent theory. Accumulating empirical studies would help create a unique theory for the Korean case. To establish a new theory, characteristics of the Korean case need to be identified, which have been formed by the Korean tradition. An understanding of the modern situation inevitably leads to an interest in the tradition. Another necessary effort is to expand territories, and one of them would be to develop interests in patients and consumers.

Pediatrics is one of the most significant and practical disciplines in Medical Sciences. Indeed, the theoretical and clinical approaches of the physicians operating in this sphere have effectively impacted Medicine in Islamic civilization. The knowledge and perspectives of Muslim physicians have been varied depending on their dwelling regions, as each region has specific characteristics in terms of weather and climate. This would trigger the occurrence of some specific diseases or clinical symptoms peculiar to that region. Concerning children’s diseases, as displayed in the writings of Muslim scholars, they encompass either ailments common among adults and children, or those specific to children. These latter ailments include those which are region-specific, infectious/ contagious diseases and non-infectious / non-contagious diseases. Research into different types of children’s diseases is beyond the scope of the present study, and demands further research. However, this study introduces and describes some independent and general treatises concerned with Pediatrics. It is hoped that the findings of the study can pave the ground for further research into this discipline within the scope of the History of Medicine in Islamic civilization.

"Total War" calls upon combatant countries to mobilize all of their resources and energies for war and their civilians to contribute in their own ways to the "war effort" of their respective governments. Carrying out such war, some governments try to redefine the distinction between the private sphere and the public sphere in their people's lives. Even sexual life, the most private sphere in people's lives, may be exposed to various forms of supervision and control from their states in the name of the national "war effort." In particular, the government in war does not hesitate to scrutinize the most private sphere of their people's lives when certain aspects of their lives do considerable harm to "war effort" or "national efficiency." The British society in the First World War intensively experienced some kind of "social control" due to the increasing spread of venereal disease (VD) both among civilians and troops. Like British society as a whole, the British army, who had primary responsibility to fight the war in the field, had to fight another hard battle against an enemy within VD, throughout the war. During the First World War, VD caused 416,891 hospital admissions among British and Dominion troops. Excluding readmissions for relapses, approximately five percent of all the men who served in Britain's armies in the course of the war became infected. During the war, at least a division was constantly out of action because so many troops had to treat VD. This disease caused a huge drain on the British army's human and material resources and consequently undermined, to a considerable extent, its military efficiency. However, a series of measures of the British Army to improve the high rate of infection among their troops have been simply considered ineffective by both contemporaries and subsequent researchers. This article aims to provide a more balanced perspective on the efforts of the British Army to fight VD during the war and reconsider the existing understandings in regard to their general effectiveness. It argues that the overall measures of the British Army regarding VD have to be examined in the context of the national efforts of British society to fight against VD as a whole. Their supposed ineffectiveness well-reflected the indecisiveness of the overall British society in terms of both how to view VD and how to fight against it.

Urmia is located in the northwestern part of Iran with close proximity to Turkey and Iraq borders. Urmia has an important status in Iran’s medical history because it is the home of Iranian’s first modern medical school, established by Dr. Joseph Plumb Cochran in 1878. Joseph Plumb Cochran was born in an American missionary family in Urmia city. After graduating from New York University, School of Medicine, he returned to his birthplace in 1879 to establish the first teaching hospital in Iran which was called Westminster hospital. Even though he was very proficient in all the local languages of the region (Persian, Azari, Kurdish & Asori), he taught most of the courses in English and the first group of students graduated in 1883 under his direct supervision. The Medical School was well known for its top academic work in Iran. He worked for 27 years, visiting thousands of patients. Throughout these years, 28 physicians were graduated from this medical school. Dr. Joseph Plumb Cochran died at the age of 50 from Typhoid Fever and was buried in a small Christian cemetery in the village of Sir near the city of Urmia.

One of the main topics discussed by historians, including those of science, in the late twentieth century is the historical introspection into "modernism," a term based on a teleological view of the world. According to the conventional understanding of world history, the historical process to modernity that has led to the Civil Revolution, Scientific Revolution, and Capitalism is linear and universally inevitable, and this-in other words, Eurocentrism-implies that only the historical experiences of Europeans are relevant. This mainstream view of world history has spread the dichotomous analytic framework of historiography and reinforced cultural essentialism, which has eventually given a Euro- or Sino-centric hierarchical presentation of history. This type of world view rests on the assumption that there are intrinsic and incommensurable differences between cultures or localities, which a lot of commentators and scholars have constantly countered by arguing that that presumption does not comply with what historical sources say. Drawing on some trail-blazing scholarship of cultural studies and others, this essay turns away from this "conventional" framework of historiography and presents a world view that is framed in the context of trans-locality, interconnectedness, plurality, heterogeneity, polycentricity, and diversity. In recent years, in an attempt to search for new analytic frames, some endeavors have emerged in the field of cultural or science studies to go beyond just providing critical commentaries or case studies. Furthermore, researchers and scholars in the history of science, technology and medicine in East Asia have put an effort into conceptualizing and establishing such new analytic frames. Among those approaches are attempts to shed light upon the trans-local yet global interconnectedness (emphatically in pre-modern periods), diverse historical trajectories to modernities, and polycentric as well as plural landscape of scientific enterprises over time and across the world. On top of these new visions of world history, this essay further elaborates on and proposes some conceptive ideas: (1) "Tradition" as a set of recipes, which could replace the idea of the living yet dead tradition; (2) "Medicine" as a problem-solving activity, which calls more attention to historical actors of East Asian medicine; (3) "East Asian medicines" as a family of trans-locally related practices in East Asia, which would lead to going beyond the nationalist historiography such as Sino-centrism; (4) "Problematique" as the system of questions and concepts which make up East Asian medicine, which should reveal what East Asian medicines have been about; (5) "Styles of Practice" for the historiography of East Asian medicines, as opposed to the cultural account, epistemological historiography or praxiography; and, as an illustrative example, (6) "Topological Bodies" for the history of anatomy in East Asia. Going beyond tradition and dichotomous historiography, these new methodologies or conceptual ideas will contribute to the understanding of the history of East Asian medicines.

Ancient Iranians are among the nations well aware of the therapeutic effects of herbs, and hence pharmacology, even though no written scientific text is left giving witness to this. However, in mythical as well as ancient stories, one can find traces of the familiarity of ancient people with medicine and treatment. However, after the emergence of Islam (6 A.D.), numerous textbooks on the pharmacy science (pharmaceutical science) are available. These texts, along with other historical and literary texts, encompass traces testifying the existence of such traditional pharmacies. Such pharmacies were in practice till mid-19th century when the first medical school was launched. At this time, mainly due to the familiarity of Naseredin Shah, (the King), with medical improvement in Europe, the first modern medical school was established in Iran. A French doctor, Dr. Focckette, as the first pharmacy teacher, started working in this school. This was followed by the effort made by Albert Scheverin, a Dutchman, to found the first modern pharmacy in Tehran, in 1882, providing people with chemical medicine. The present study aimed at giving a report on the history of medicine and pharmacy in Iran, followed by the reports of the first modern pharmacies founded in Iran.

Ikhtiyarat Badiei is a well-written book authored by Haji Zain al Din Ansari (15th AD) in the era of Mozaffarid dynasty in Shiraz. The main tenet of the book is to introduce plant, animal and inanimate drugs in an alphabetical order. In this book, the writer has talked about the ancient terms used for drugs and medications. In addition, in writing the book, he has given reference to all related works used. Basically, the present study is a library research using the descriptive method and its main aim is to investigate the strong and weak points of Ikhtiyarat Badiei, as one of the most important books on pharmacology written in Persian in the Islamic era in the 15th century.

The current study employed corpus linguistics techniques in order to shed light on the representation of “cholera”, “measles”, and “plague” over 19th and 20th centuries in American society. To this end and also to compare the representation of the mentioned contagious diseases over time, the current study explored how these target words (i.e., cholera, measles and plague) in texts of 19th and 20th centuries collocate with other words. To study the collocation patterns of contagious diseases over time, corpus of historical American English (COHA) was used. The results indicated that language change represented the events taken place in the society. Moreover, as expected, it was revealed that the texts on different diseases (i.e., cholera, measles, and plague) carried over a negative prosody. Regarding the difference between the 19th and 20th centuries, although the frequency of the target words in the 19th and 20th centuries were not equal, the collocational patterns of these contagious diseases over 19th and 20th centuries were almost similar.

For a long time, in different periods, Shiraz water was supplied from wells, aqueducts (qanat) and springs, which were generally open and hence got polluted in different ways on its way to the residential area. The consumption of these polluted waters resulted in the outbreak of infectious and contagious diseases, at times, killing a lot of people. Mohammad Namazi, having faced with the issue of unhealthy drinking water and consulted various specialists, found that the unsanitary drinking water was responsible for most gastrointestinal diseases as well as contagious diseases. In addition to constructing educational and health facilities, Namazi decided to develop a proper piping system for drinking water. At that time, even in the capital of Iran, there was not such a system. The present descriptive study, together with the library research method by scrutinizing local papers and newspapers, aims to first address the effect of the contaminated waters on the spread of contagious diseases and then the role of water piping system in reducing diseases in Shiraz. Research findings show that water supply and sanitation are important in reducing diseases such as typhoid, typhus, cholera and many waterborne diseases.

At the beginning of the Qajar era, Iran’s relationship with the West created the ground for political, social and cultural developments. One of the most important advantages was that Iran’s relations with the West led to the introduction of new ideas and approaches in the field of medicine and health in Iran. At that time, the low-quality healthcare and medical services provided in Iran, compared with the development in Western medical sciences attracted the attention of some Qajar periodicals and journals. One of these journals was Ganjineh-e-Fonoon, which devoted itself mostly to publishing articles on the progress made in medical and health issues. This periodical was first published before the Constitution Movement in Tabriz. An examination of the articles published in Ganjineh-e-Fonoon showed that while most articles welcomed modern medicine, they challenged the credibility of traditional medicine. Regarding this, it can be claimed that this journal, as one of the influential periodicals of the day, played an important role in informing and helping people in their transition from relying on traditional medicine to modern medicine. The present study is a library research which has employed a descriptive approach in the analysis of the data collected.

This study deals with how the Austrian physician, Sigmund Freud, was perceived as a psychotherapist and scientist in pre-revolutionary Iran. The opinions voiced by the Persian critics, authors, and translators in the period under discussion reveals an approach informed by authentic culture or domestically originated thinking and assertions that substantiate the claim that Persian scholars and authors had already touched upon or even elaborated on the concepts brought up by Freud. The study indicates that authors and translators dealing with Freudian ideas are interested in understanding Freud by adopting an “imperialistic” approach in terms of discourse importation theories. Moreover, his discourse is co-opted as a scientific one in the period under discussion. This study may serve as a contribution to history of medicine in Iran – not least, that of psychotherapy – and can indicate how the evolution of a school of thought takes place when it is implanted in or imported to a new context.

This paper explores the heritage and the essential significance of worship of the twin Christian saints -St. Cosmas and St. Damian- in the history of medicine. These saints are well known in Western culture as one of the leading Christian saints to heal diseases, whose cults have spread to Europe through Byzantium, which have continued to spread widely to the present, starting from areas where Christianity had been proselytized. Although it is true that their life journeys have undergone many processes of embellishment and beautification over the course of time, the attributes that distinctively characterize the two saints exist apart from such mythical fabrications. This paper categorizes the characteristics of the two saints as being those of “professional doctors,” “ideal doctors,” and “holders of healing powers” as intermediaries of God, examining how these characteristics came to affect various medical organizations during the era when Medieval medicine was gradually transitioning toward a rational approach based on reason. In addition, it discusses how some of the practices of ancient temple medicine were transplanted into the Christian culture, the process by which it finally arrived at human doctors through the two saints, and how it affected the establishment of professional work ethics -albeit in nascent form- as their medical ethics came to be accepted and practiced by the Medieval guild of surgeons. Furthermore, the paper considers how the existence of the two saints has acquired symbolism in modern medicine, which has made remarkable progress in organ transplantation, and in particular, how it constitutes a significant part of the history of organ transplantation. It is not easy to objectify and attach meaning to an era that was substantially influenced by myths, legends, or religious events. This is because it is easy to fall into the trap of simplifying and passing judgment on the past based on the realities of the present day, without making efforts to understand the unique circumstances and contexts of the past. This is especially the case when the distinction between “religious events” and “medical events” is ambiguous, or when dealing with a social culture where religious influence was paramount. From a broader perspective, the study of St. Cosmas and St. Damian is not concerned with the rights or wrongs of religious myths amid the advancement of medicine and its adherence to science and reason, but with the attempt at a deep and broad understanding of human diseases and human conditions of being prone to such diseases throughout life.

Amphiaraos was an important and popular healing hero/god in Athens from the end of the fifth century BC, however, not much has been studied. This paper investigates the figure in various ways by examining different sources. In the sixth century BC and in to the fifth, Amphiaraos was an Argive warrior hero that came into war against Thebes. He then seems to have acquired a sanctuary in the Theban territory being a mantic hero. In the end of the fifth century BC, however, he is said to have swallowed up by the earth and sprang up again in a spring at Oropos. Between 420-414 BC, his sanctuary was set up by the Athenians at Oropos. But this time, he was venerated as a healing hero. In 420 BC, Asklepios was introduced to Athens in order to cure plague that went around from 430s BC. It seems that the Athenians benchmarked Asklepios to promote one more healing hero/god at their north eastern border. When Oropos was taken by their enemies, a substitute Amphiareion was established in Rhamnous, a deme close to Oropos. The Athenians also promoted a patriotic hero through the words of Euripides. Illustrated as having gone through the same process of sacrifice - death - commemoration, Amphiaraos was put in parallel with the Athenian mythical king Erechtheus. Through this parallel, Amphiaraos became a political figure that protected Athens from outside threats. Healing was, by the ancient Athenians, understood in a wide spectrum and was considered as a way to protect the polis.

There is no doubt that the colonial period was a critical time for the establishment and expansion of modern Western medicine in Korea. However, did this act as a catalyst for the overall decline of traditional Korean medicine? While previous studies mainly focus on research based on the concept of Uisaeng (traditional Korean medicine doctor) and the medical policies implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea, this paper begins with the Korean herbal medicine industry, and comprehensively investigates the distribution and consumption of Korean herbal medicines during the colonial period from three perspectives: the policies for Korean medicine merchants implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea, changes in the Korean herbal medicine industry, and consumption of Korean herbal medicines in the Korean society. The colonial authorities’ intention was to foster the advancement of Western medicine and phase out traditional Korean medicine. However, they merely imposed limitations on Uisaengs’ operations—this policy loophole objectively left a window for Korean medicine merchants. Moreover, against the backdrop of the growing popularity of Western medicine and restrictions on the development of traditional Korean medicine by colonial authorities, the Korean herbal medicine industry, as one of the few “national industries” dominated by and serving Koreans, showed its tenacious vitality during that time. Korean medicine merchants responded to market changes with ease. They built different drugstores, such as traditional herbal stores mainly selling traditional Korean medicines, hybrid drugstores that simultaneously dealt with the manufacture and sale of patent medicines, and ginseng drugstores that specialized in the ginseng business. This classification promoted the commercialization of traditional Korean herbal medicine. Another crucial condition for the vitality of the Korean herbal medicine industry is Koreans’ preference for traditional Korean medicine. It is an indisputable fact that Western medicine gradually became popular and was recognized by the common man during the colonial period; nonetheless, Eastern medicine and Western medicine were not playing a zero-sum game. Through comprehensive macro and micro analysis, this paper demonstrates that, during the colonial period, when old and new ideas interacted, most Koreans, including upper-class elites and intellectuals who were open-minded about emerging concepts and options and had ample opportunities to avail western medical treatment, preferred traditional Korean medicine. Using Korean herbal medicines for illnesses remained the primary choice, While Western medicine assumed the role of a supplement to traditional treatment. This paper argues that the first reason for this phenomenon is the inertia of tradition, and the second is that Western medicine was not necessarily more effective than Korean herbal medicine at that time. Specifically, it can be considered that, during the colonial period, the growing popularity of Western medicine failed to bring about a radical change in Koreans’ regular medical interventions. Simultaneously, the Korean herbal medicine industry, one of the pillars offering medical support to the common man, adapted suitably while relying on the inertia of its own tradition. The industry’s vitality and dynamism during the colonial period certainly underscore the need to amend the one-sided narrative of medical modernization vis-à-vis Western medicine.

In this article, I first explored the process and its characteristics of the reorganization of the medical institution in the early Chosun Dynasty. In the early Chosun Dynasty, medical institutions of Naeuiwon, Jeonuigam, Hyeminseo, Hwalinseo, Jesaengwon were operated. From the examining the history, members, and roles of these institutions, it can be said that Chosun was aimed at Minbon Thought(For the people) of Neo-Confucianism and a one-sided centralized system. To understand the meaning of the change process of these medical institutions, we should pay attention to the social structure and ruling ideology of the late Koryo period. In other words, the autonomy and publicness of the people expanded in the land system of Koryo, while on the other hand, it became important to overcome the inefficiency of Buddhism, which was a dominant ideology. The movement to reflect the strengthened status of the people into the public national system by taking the Neo-Confucianism as the dominant ideology has been strengthened, and the medical rights of all the people have been guaranteed. But it did not mean that the Minbon Thought(For the people) of NeoConfucianism put the people first. The reason why the medical institution was organized in the order of Naeuiwon → Jeonuigam → Hyeminseo → Hwalinseo was because the theory of essence and end(本末論) of Neo-Confucianism was projected. At the same time, this hierarchical structure was also coincided with the statusclass structure of Chosun, which peaked at the royal family as the highest ruling class. For this reason, the status of the medical institutions for the people, Hyeminseo and Hwalinseo was low.

This research explores the case of the 1903 smallpox outbreak on the SS Korea , a transpacific carrier making runs between Southeast Asia, East Asia, Hawaii, and the United States. These regions were connected to a degree that no one had ever imagined through the SS Korea . Honolulu, Hawaii, was one of the most important territories in US maritime history and served as a waypoint between Asia and San Francisco on the mainland. As increasing numbers of people traveled by sea, various microbes were communicated across the Pacific Ocean. International tourists traveling across the ocean to Hawaii and the United States were alerted to infectious diseases, smallpox being one of the most significant of such diseases. The story of the SS Korea serves as an important lens through which to explore the early twentieth century transpacific world connected through Honolulu. Focusing on the spread of smallpox via international travelers, this research studies aspects of the public health system that were developed to contain smallpox infection on international ships and the application of smallpox vaccination as a method for infectious disease control. More importantly, in bringing attention to the uncertainty surrounding the diagnosis of smallpox, this research argues for the necessity of historians to build a more comprehensive medical historical context for disease control systems that includes the limits of medical science in making diagnoses of infectious diseases, the uncertainties arising from a lack of this component, and the implementation of health policies and preventative medical technologies.

The battle of Muslims with the Crusaders took place when disturbances in the region of Sham, especially in the north, prevented their confrontation with European forces; as a result, the circumstances were brought about for the establishment of European rule in Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem and Tripoli. Internal conflicts in the northern cities of Sham and prolonged encounters with the Turkmens, Crusaders, and rulers of Mosul and southern Sham caused insecurity in these areas. This insecurity was intensified by factors, such as epidemics, consecutive famines and the maladministration of governors. In this paper, the researcher attempts to use statistical data to evaluate the impact of war, famine and disease on insecurity in Northern Sham on the verge of the Crusaders’ attack. For this purpose, primary sources such as “al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh”, Ibn al-Qalanisi’s “Mudhayyal Ta’rikh Dimashq”, and “Zubdat al-halab min tarikh Halab” were examined; cases of insecurity were extracted and the severity of their impact was analyzed based on the words these sources used to describe the “insecurity” and its underlying factors.

Carmelite missionaries as the Vatican’s ambassadors and representatives arrived in Iran since the reign of Shah Abbas I. They were engaged in the extension of catholic Christianity in Iran in various political, religious, cultural, and social arenas. Carmelite missionaries came to Iran in order to strengthen the relationship between European states and the Safavids to form a coalition against the Ottoman Empire. As one of the most active missionary groups in Iran, Carmelites were able to identify the needs and shortcomings of the country in that period and penetrated among different classes of Iranian society. Through meeting the requirements of different social groups, Carmelite missionaries were pursuing their own religious and cultural objectives. Medical activities were among the most effective and important activities of Carmelite priests in Iran during the Safavid Period. As the most active Christian missionaries in Iran, Carmelite Fathers endeavored to provide medical and health services for the Safavid Court, ruling classes, and people from different walks of life in order to develop and expand Christianity in the Iranian Society. During their residence in Iran, many Carmelite priests, including Fr. Angelus of St. Joseph, wrote different books in order to introduce Iranian medicine to Europe. Some of them even translated Iranian medical books into European languages and published them in Europe. By taking advantage of analytical methodologies, authors of the present article intend to analyze the medical activities of Carmelite priests in the Safavid Period and then elaborate on the repercussions of such activities.

Ibn al Jazzar as the first Muslim physician has done works on medical sciences in North Africa. Apparently, he has had accessed to some of works in Greek and used them to compile over forty books. He has also made them more productive by his own experiences. Works of Ibn al Jazzar has been used by some well-known Muslim physicians, namely Razi‚ Ibn Sina, etc. In addition, his works has been translated into Latin and Greek in later years as well and his books, Zad al Mosafer, has become very important in Europe. Thus, its translation into Latin for the first time has caused medical sciences of ancient Greeks returned to Europe. He has also written Tib al Foqara va al Masakin for the poor who could not have access to any doctors or medicine because of their poverty. He has trained many students in Islamic sciences, namely Abuhefz Ibn Tariq Andalusia, a physician in Kairouan, in Tunisia. Abuhefz has brought Zad al Mosafer to Andalus and Muslim‚ Jewish and Christian doctors began to use it.

Keeping old documents from damage is of considerable points in protecting national resources. Recently, some studies performed to find out ways of protecting manuscripts from defecting of some biologic or chemical factors. Searching through the Iranian manuscripts remain from 15th century (AD) until about the second decade of 17th century (AD), which was Contemporary with the rule of Safavid government, demonstrate a word written frequently by the writer in several parts of documents and in different forms, as “Gabigaj”, which is the name of a Persian plant belonging to Ranunculaceae family.Historical studies show ta prevalence of magic in different aspects of life through Safavid era in Iran, especially in the case of the magic usage of some plants. In this study we discuss about the magic usage of the name of the plant of “Gabigaj” in Safavid era, to protect manuscripts against fungies and insects.

Since long times ago, cinder of different plants has been used for medical and health purposes. It has been referred to as one of the best medical approaches in pharmacy in old scrolls and tablets dating back to millennium before Christ. Nevertheless, no research has been performed on the properties and features of cinder, especially cinder as a medicine for therapeutic and health purposes, its utilization and instructions. In this regard some experiments conducted in the traditional medicine can come to aid the conventional medicine in the mentioned fields.In this study, first, having reviewed written sources, the researchers found some evidence of cinder therapy in the literature. Next, oral history was utilized as a research method to develop and maintain original historical information form memory of individuals witnessed certain historical events, although some information found was already mentioned in contemporary reports and field studies. Therefore, in general, multiple witnesses and cases for medical applications of cinder were explored. To reinforce the comments, opinions of ancient medics are referred to.Cinder was used as a medicine in multiple cases including: wounds disinfection, bleeding prevention, sour stomach reduction, pain and contusion therapy, toothache therapy, wen and warts therapy, and gum therapy. In the cases mentioned, cinder was sometimes prescribed alone and sometimes in combination with other substances. Moreover, it was sometimes emphasized to be used warm/hot to function efficiently.Conclusion: however the use of cinder as a medicine in traditional Iranian medicine differs from that of traditional medicine, but with the help of ancient medicine, people can be helped in disinfect wounds, and prevent bleeding, stomach ache, pain and contusion treatment, toothache, doom and warf treatment, and gum treatment.

It is noteworthy to mention that cultural ties intensified in the relations between the Ottoman Empire and Azerbaijan in the fifteenth century. It is possible to say that some political and socio-cultural events, in particular, increasing interaction and travel with the occupation of Azerbaijan (after 1386) and then the Ottoman Empire (1402) by Tamerlane (Timur the Lame-1370-1405) further intensified after the conquest of Istanbul in 1453. The ongoing reforms in education during this period in the Ottoman Empire mainly coincided with the reign of Fatih Sultan Mehmet (1451-1481). For this reason, the Ottoman Empire attracted a great number of scientists from neighboring Muslim countries, amongst which there were many Azerbaijani physicians, satisfied their needs in accurate and positive sciences such as mathematics, geometry, astronomy and medicine. Ottoman sources also mentioned that the doctors from Azerbaijan were given great respect and glory.The article examines activities of 10 physicians operating in the Ottoman Empire. These physicians are Mahmud Shirvani (1439), Shukrullah Shirvani (1485), Amirek Tabib, Kamaladdin Tabrizi (1507/1508), Ahi Muhammed Chelebi Tabrizi (1431-1524), Muhammad Shah Gazvini (1523), Mevlana Nuraddin, Dervish Ali Kahal (Ophthalmologist), Osman Chelebi, and Abu Talib Tabrizi. Some of these physicians are mentioned for the first time in this research. Some of the physicians are meanwhile known to be close friends as well as personal physicians of the Ottoman sultans. They are well-known as the great thinkers of the time and have written many works of art.

In the historiography of the Soviet period, the issues of venereology are not discussed in the works of the doctors themselves. Research on the historiography of the independent Lithuania on this topic has not been detected, but a number of stories about the methods of forced treatment and upbringing in the Soviet period can be found in popular spoken history. Some very fragmentary data describe the incidence of venereal diseases and the fact of politicized medicine in Soviet Lithuania. Certain social groups such as hippies received extraordinary attention from the government due to their political activities. Usually they were put in the closed tyoe venerology wards.

В статье рассмотрены основные этапы развития и особенности деятельнос- ти кафедры в контексте общих тенденций становления социальной медицины в Украине. Методы исследования: хроно- логический, синхронный, исторический и метод системного анализа. Научная новизна. Впервые комплексно отражены формирование кадрового потенциала, научные направления, учебно-методические наработки кафедры на протяжении 1945-2019 гг. Проанализирован процесс формирования профессорско-преподавательского потенциала кафедры, его уче- бно-методическая и научная деятельность, вклад в разработку проблем социальной медицины и организации здравоох- ранения. Выводы. Доказано, что деятельность кафедры была направлена на повышение квалификации врачей и мене- джеров системы здравоохранения, консультирование по медико-социальным вопросам.

Latvijas historiogrāfijā joprojām nav pietiekami izpētīta 1905. gada revolūcijas tēma. Pirmā monogrāfija atjaunotajā Latvijā tika izdota tikai 2018. gadā, iezīmējot pozitīvu pavērsienu tēmas izpētē. Vēsturnieces Līgas Lapas nozīmīgajā pētījumā “Kaujinieki un mežabrāļi 1905. gada revolū- cijā Latvijā” (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2018) ir analizēta kaujinieku un mežabrāļu kustība, un tajā iezīmējas arī daudzas problēmas, kurām pētniecisko uzmanību varētu veltīt medicīnas vēsturnieki. Viena no tādām tēmām ir 1905. gada revolūcijas dalībnieku likteņi. Dažus no viņiem notikumu gaita vai pašu rīcība noveda psihiatriskajā slimnīcā Aleksandra Augstumos Rīgā. Pacientu slimību vēstures ir specifisks dokumentu veids, un mediķa skatījumam ir būtiska nozīme vēsturisko personību izpratnē. Piedāvājam Latvijā pirmo darbu, kas paver perspektīvu šāda veida avotu izpētē. Publiski pirmo reizi klausītāji ar to tika iepazīstināti Rīgas Stradiņa universitātes zinātniskās konferences Medicīnas vēstures sekcijas sēdē 2018. gadā. Tādējādi ceram radīt pamatu diskusijai par slimības vēs- turu izpētes jēgu un iespējamo nozīmi 1905. gada revolūcijas izpētē.

В статье освещены биографические вехи и научные достижения известного украинского ученого, заведующего кафедрой гражданской защиты и медицины катастроф Государственного учрежде- ния «Запорожская медицинская академия последипломного образования МЗ Украины», доктор медицинских наук, док- тора философии, профессора, академика Украинской международной академии оригинальных идей, председателя науч- но-методического совета по вопросам гражданской защиты и безопасности жизнедеятельности населения Запорожской области, заместителя атамана Союза общественных организаций «Запорожский казацкий округ», генерал-хорунжего Войска Запорожского Низового.

Цель работы. Исследования и изучения исто- рического наследия развития организации медицинской помощи в Галичине, становления науки гигиены и обществен- ных медицинских организаций XIX‐ХХ века на примере врача, протомедика Галичины, государственного и обществен- ного деятеля ‐ профессора Львовского университета Юзефа Меруновича. Материал и методы. В исследование увийш- лидоступни материалы библиотек ЛНМУ имени Даниила Галицкого, ЛНУ имени Ивана Франко, энциклопедические, журнальные и газтни статьи. Результаты. В результате изучения биографических данных и исследования деятельности профессора Юзефа Меруновичабуло определено европейский уровень организации медицинской службы Галичины, который сочетался с научной сотрудничеством медицинского факультета Львовского университета. Выводы. Оценивая жизненный путь профессора Юзефа Меруновича, и анализируя его вклад в развитие и становления медицинской науки, его организаторские способности как государственного служащего, общественного деятеля медицинского профиля, можно смело утверждать о надлежащем европейском уровне организации медицинской службы в Галичине в указанный период.