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A new statistical control chart denoted as CHEWMA (Cultural Heritage EWMA) is proposed for microclimate monitoring in preventive conservation. This tool is a real-time detection method inspired by the EN 15757:2010 standard, serving as an alternative to its common adaptations. The proposed control chart is intended to detect short-term fluctuations (STFs) in temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH), which would enable timely interventions to mitigate the risk of mechanical damage to collections. The CHEWMA chart integrates the Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) control chart with a weighting mechanism that prioritizes fluctuations occurring near extreme values. The methodology was validated using RH time series recorded by seven dataloggers installed at the Alava Fine Arts Museum, and, from these, seventy simulated time series were generated to enhance the robustness of the analyses. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that, for the studied dataset, the CHEWMA chart exhibits stronger similarity to the application of EN 15757:2010 than other commonly used real-time STF detection methods in the literature. Furthermore, it provides a flexible option for real-time applications, enabling adaptation to specific conservation needs while remaining aligned with the general framework established by the standard. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first statistical process control chart designed for the field of preventive conservation of cultural heritage. Beyond assessing CHEWMA's performance, this study reveals that, when adapting the procedures of the European norm by developing a new real-time approach based on a simple moving average (herein termed SMA-FT), a window of approximately 14 days is more appropriate for STF detection than the commonly assumed 30-day period in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy rehabilitation of heritage buildings used as museums presents unique challenges, as it must balance the preservation of cultural heritage with achieving comfortable indoor conditions for visitors and staff. These objectives often conflict, requiring innovative approaches. We propose a methodology that uses dynamical simulation with EnergyPlus and multi-objective optimization with jEPlus + EA software to reduce energy consumption and maximize comfort while maintaining architectural integrity and conservation conditions evaluated by a quantitative analysis based on the European Standards. The framework also includes monitoring microclimate conditions and assessing the risk levels of the exposed collections. A case study in Salta City, Argentina—a historical building repurposed as a museum—illustrates this approach. Results show improved energy performance and comfort conditions for visitors, with an annual energy requirement of about 36% of the original requirement (16.4 kWh/m2 versus 45 kWh/m2) and a decrease of about 32% in the discomfort hours (from 5362 h to 3643 h). Additionally, conservation conditions improved, achieving a more stable microclimate for air temperature and relative humidity. The framework proved useful for evaluating retrofit solutions that enhance the building’s energy performance and comfort without compromising the conservation conditions of the exhibited collections.

Energy rehabilitation of heritage buildings used as museums presents unique challenges, as it must balance the preservation of cultural heritage with achieving comfortable indoor conditions for visitors and staff. These objectives often conflict, requiring innovative approaches. We propose a methodology that uses dynamical simulation with EnergyPlus and multi-objective optimization with jEPlus + EA software to reduce energy consumption and maximize comfort while maintaining architectural integrity and conservation conditions evaluated by a quantitative analysis based on the European Standards. The framework also includes monitoring microclimate conditions and assessing the risk levels of the exposed collections. A case study in Salta City, Argentina—a historical building repurposed as a museum—illustrates this approach. Results show improved energy performance and comfort conditions for visitors, with an annual energy requirement of about 36% of the original requirement (16.4 kWh/m2 versus 45 kWh/m2) and a decrease of about 32% in the discomfort hours (from 5362 h to 3643 h). Additionally, conservation conditions improved, achieving a more stable microclimate for air temperature and relative humidity. The framework proved useful for evaluating retrofit solutions that enhance the building's energy performance and comfort without compromising the conservation conditions of the exhibited collections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers studying urban climates aim to understand phenomena like urban heat islands (UHIs), which describe temperature differences between urban and rural areas. However, studies often lack numerous measurement points and frequently overlook parameters like radiation and air velocity due to the high cost of precision instrumentation. This results in data with a low resolution, particularly in tropical cities where official weather stations are scarce. This research introduces a new, low-tech tool for district-level outdoor thermal comfort assessment and UHI characterization to address these challenges. The automated weather station employs sensors to measure temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and globe temperature. The paper details these sensors' rigorous selection and validation process, followed by a description of the sensor assembly, data acquisition chain, and network operation mechanisms. Calibration outcomes in laboratory and in situ environments highlight the station's reliability, even in tropical conditions. In conclusion, this weather station offers a cost-effective solution to gathering high-resolution data in urban areas, enabling an improved understanding of the UHI phenomenon and the refinement of urban microclimate numerical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microclimate monitoring in agroforestry is very important to understand the complex interactions between vegetation, soil, and the environment. Microclimate parameters include air and soil temperature, air humidity, soil moisture, and light intensity. This research aims to develop a new microclimate data recording system for coffee-pine agroforestry, utilizing LoRaWAN and IoT technology to capture real-time microclimate parameters. Unlike traditional data loggers that require manual download on-site, this innovative system enables instant data download from IoT servers, thereby increasing data efficiency and accessibility. The system proved effective, significantly improving the precision of air temperature and humidity, as well as soil temperature measurements, with an average accuracy of 100%. However, soil moisture and light intensity recorded lower accuracies of 81.23% and 82.56%, respectively, indicating potential areas for future research and system refinement. The system maintains a 15-minute sampling period, aligning with conventional datalogger intervals. This represents an advancement in precision agriculture for microclimate monitoring, enabling the data to be utilized in decision-making for agroforestry management, which involves complex interactions between the local microclimate and the broader ecological system. It underscores the significance of sustainable land use as a response to global climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The quality and quantity of thermo-hygrometric data are essential to carry out an appropriate assessment of the microclimate from a preventive conservation standpoint in those spaces where the artefacts to be preserved are located. These analyses are fundamental for long-term preventive conservation plan to assess chemical, biological or fracture risks. However, many small and medium-sized museums as well as heritage buildings have only a limited amount of historical data, with various problems that hinder the evaluation of microclimatic conditions. Two of the most common problems are short monitoring time periods, usually less than one year, and low sampling rates of measurements. In many of these situations, guidelines such as the European standard EN 15757:2010 cannot be applied because they require a monitoring period of at least 13 months and a minimum sampling frequency of one measurement per hour. In addition to these issues, there are other drawbacks such as missing values or lack of regularity in data collection. This paper proposes a procedure for the reconstruction of historical thermo-hygrometric data using multivariate statistical methods. The methodology allows the arrangement of long historical series of sufficient quality, enabling museums to restore their datasets for further analysis regarding the application of guidelines for preventive conservation. The methodology has been validated on the basis of real data. The application of the European standard EN 15757:2010 is presented as a practical example of the procedure using historical data collected at a partner museum of the H2020 CollectionCare project, together with data currently being collected for some months by a set of wireless sensor nodes.

Abstract The Alessandrina Library was founded in 1667 by pope Alexander VII Chigi and is nowadays housed in the Campus of Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). Within its Ancient (mostly made of rag paper) and Modern (mostly made of contemporary paper) collections, it includes more than one million books produced from the XVI to the XXI century. In 2019, six thermo-hygrometers were deployed in its multi-storey repository to monitor temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH). Hourly T and RH data collected over 2 years allowed us to evaluate spatial and temporal thermo-hygrometric distributions and to carry out a comprehensive assessment of the climate-induced risks (mechanical, chemical, and biological deterioration mechanisms). Vertical temperature gradients associated with unstable conditions occurred in winter, resulting in upraising air flows up to the ceiling. The risky short-term RH fluctuations (EN 15757:2010) were determined to avoid mechanical stress in case of loans, relocation, and consultation. The Time Weighted Expected Lifetime (TWEL) index was used to evaluate the chemical risk for different paper-based collections as a function of their acidity and degree of polymerisation, also considering the typical response time of paper books to T and RH changes. The TWEL calculation estimated that the durability of acidic paper was around 300 years and highlighted that rag paper could be subject to cellulose hydrolysis only in summer and autumn, while contemporary paper was mostly at no risk. The risk of mould germination (Sedlbauer diagram) was possible on few days in Autumn, while the production of insect eggs (Brimblecombe empirical function) was favoured during approximately 42% of time over the year. In addition, illuminance and colorimetric measurements (performed on selected book covers) showed that light-sensitive objects could be exposed to the photodeterioration risk in the east-facing side of the repository. Although the investigation focussed on a specific case study, a similar approach could be effectively adapted to most library and archival repositories conserving paper-based collections.

The quality and quantity of thermo-hygrometric data are essential to carry out an appropriate assessment of the microclimate from a preventive conservation standpoint in those spaces where the artefacts to be preserved are located. These analyses are fundamental for long-term preventive conservation plan to assess chemical, biological or fracture risks. However, many small and medium-sized museums as well as heritage buildings have only a limited amount of historical data, with various problems that hinder the evaluation of microclimatic conditions. Two of the most common problems are short monitoring time periods, usually less than one year, and low sampling rates of measurements. In many of these situations, guidelines such as the European standard EN 15757:2010 cannot be applied because they require a monitoring period of at least 13 months and a minimum sampling frequency of one measurement per hour. In addition to these issues, there are other drawbacks such as missing values or lack of regularity in data collection. This paper proposes a procedure for the reconstruction of historical thermo-hygrometric data using multivariate statistical methods. The methodology allows the arrangement of long historical series of sufficient quality, enabling museums to restore their datasets for further analysis regarding the application of guidelines for preventive conservation. The methodology has been validated on the basis of real data. The application of the European standard EN 15757:2010 is presented as a practical example of the procedure using historical data collected at a partner museum of the H2020 CollectionCare project, together with data currently being collected for some months by a set of wireless sensor nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the climate related risks associated with the conservation of historical buildings in Po Valley. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the influence of the seasonal/daily variations in the outdoor climate on the indoor microclimate of historical buildings. Seven case studies were identified to monitor and analyse the thermo-hydrometrical variation of air T °C and RH%, followed by a thorough assessment of the buildings with regards to their state of conservation, materials and building techniques, presence of rising damp and intervention for its reduction. The analysis is composed of visual inspections, microclimate monitoring using psychrometry and monitoring probes, Infra-Red (IR) Thermography and weighing tests. The result of the study evaluates the factors affecting the distribution of Water Content (WC) and explores the correlation with factors pertaining to building materials and construction techniques. Curves describing the daily mean values of T °C and RH% for a period of one year have been defined by the authors for each of the historical buildings. The temperature profiles showed similarities with regards to spells of annual peak and plateau across all the case studies. However, the RH% profiles resulted less similar; it has been able to identify some microclimatic characteristics of the Po valley region, which can lead to further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this work is the characterization and observation of the performance of an IoT measurement and monitoring system in the field of cultural heritage conservation for assessing the health condition of artworks. This article also describes the application of this system to the monitoring of a canvas painting applied on a wooden support, an artwork from the 19th century by the painter Giuseppe Patricolo depicting The Deposition, placed inside a niche in the Santa Caterina Monastery in Palermo (Italy). Considering the presence of the wooden structure, it is useful to measure not only microclimatic parameters such as temperature and humidity, but also vibrations that can in fact cause degradation phenomena in these artworks. This is a first step towards the development of mimetic systems integrated in the work of art without causing physical, mechanical or chemical alterations and ensuring that the level of microclimatic parameters is below the threshold values whose exceeding could compromise the entire artefact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Alessandrina Library was founded in 1667 by pope Alexander VII Chigi and is nowadays housed in the Campus of Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). Within its Ancient (mostly made of rag paper) and Modern (mostly made of contemporary paper) collections, it includes more than one million books produced from the XVI to the XXI century. In 2019, six thermo-hygrometers were deployed in its multi-storey repository to monitor temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH). Hourly T and RH data collected over 2 years allowed us to evaluate spatial and temporal thermo-hygrometric distributions and to carry out a comprehensive assessment of the climate-induced risks (mechanical, chemical, and biological deterioration mechanisms). Vertical temperature gradients associated with unstable conditions occurred in winter, resulting in upraising air flows up to the ceiling. The risky short-term RH fluctuations (EN 15757:2010) were determined to avoid mechanical stress in case of loans, relocation, and consultation. The Time Weighted Expected Lifetime (TWEL) index was used to evaluate the chemical risk for different paper-based collections as a function of their acidity and degree of polymerisation, also considering the typical response time of paper books to T and RH changes. The TWEL calculation estimated that the durability of acidic paper was around 300 years and highlighted that rag paper could be subject to cellulose hydrolysis only in summer and autumn, while contemporary paper was mostly at no risk. The risk of mould germination (Sedlbauer diagram) was possible on few days in Autumn, while the production of insect eggs (Brimblecombe empirical function) was favoured during approximately 42% of time over the year. In addition, illuminance and colorimetric measurements (performed on selected book covers) showed that light-sensitive objects could be exposed to the photodeterioration risk in the east-facing side of the repository. Although the investigation focussed on a specific case study, a similar approach could be effectively adapted to most library and archival repositories conserving paper-based collections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study deals with stone deterioration in underground cultural heritage and geoheritage, correlating the origin, compositional features, and space–time changes of salt weathering with the rock properties (petrography and geochemistry) and environmental setting (microclimate and chemistry of rainwater and groundwater). The material of study is Oya-ishi, one of the best-known building stones of Japan; it is a porous and soft acid tuff with a long tradition of use in historical and modern architecture. A number of underground sites of cultural or commercial significance was investigated in central Japan, where Oya stone appears extensively affected by efflorescence growth. The efflorescences are composed of mixed sulfates, including gypsum, mirabilite, and thenardite, whose development depends on the stone–environment interaction. The underground environment is extremely humid and water is the main driving force of salt weathering, having a twofold function. First, it conveys the alteration of the rock components, in particular pyrite, glass (pumice, fiamme, and shards), zeolites (clinoptilolite), clay minerals (smectites), and feldspars, which release SO42−, Na+, and Ca2+ ions. Second, water controls the salt stability and cycles of crystallization/deliquescence and hydration/dehydration, depending on the site depth and seasonal microclimate fluctuations; in this regard, knowing the specific thermodynamic behavior of the phases involved can help predicting where and when salt weathering and the resulting stone damage are most severe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The Buddhist sacred site of Taya Caves is a gem hidden underground in Yokohama, Japan. The caves were excavated and sculpted into bare rock by Shingon Buddhist monks from the Kamakura until the Edo period (thirteenth–nineteenth century), and dedicated to ascetic training, rituals, and pilgrimage. They are a maze of halls and galleries decorated with hundreds of rock-cut reliefs, picturing deities and masters of Buddhism, temples and shrines, real and fantastic animals, vegetal motifs, mandalas, zodiac signs, family crests, etc. The history and rock art of Taya Caves and the urge to preserve their cultural value led to this first-ever scientific investigation, dealing with the stone properties, deterioration, and environmental setting. Textural, mineralogical, geochemical, and petrophysical investigations were combined with a microclimate monitoring and chemical analyses of groundwater and rainwater. The caves are excavated into a clay-rich fossiliferous siltstone, extremely soft and porous and highly susceptible to water-driven weathering. Water represents a constant in Taya Caves, either flowing, dripping, and stagnant; or rising from the subsoil; or related to the extremely high relative humidity. Crusts and efflorescences represent important indicators of mineral dissolution and mobilization. The crusts are made of gypsum, crystallized from the dissolution of calcareous bioclasts and oxidation of pyrite, with minor calcite. The efflorescences are composed of chlorides, phosphates, sulfates, and carbonates, possibly deriving from agrochemicals and the surface vegetation cover. The salt weathering is strictly related to the microenvironmental variables and physico-chemical properties of the phases and waters involved. Rock-water interaction is particularly damaging even considering just the physical mechanisms. The stone is strongly sensitive to water absorption, hygroscopic adsorption, and slaking: the stresses generated by in-pore water and air movement and the swelling clay minerals may lead to rapid disintegration, especially during cyclic processes. This research is expected to raise concerns about the safeguard of Taya Caves and support future monitoring and conservation plans, and to foster a wider promotion and valorization of this heritage site.

Indoor air quality in buildings is strongly affected by chemical, physical, and biological agents. Long exposure to inadequate indoor air quality can be very dangerous for the building occupants and can lead to chronic diseases associated with the sick building syndrome (SBS). In this paper, the large presence of biological pollutants in the indoor rooms of an old building and its strict relationship with the outdoor/indoor air conditions were investigated studying Coronini Cronberg Palace Foundation, a historic house museum of the sixteenth century in Gorizia (Italy), where biological contamination affecting the artworks can soon become potentially harmful also for operators and visitors. Detailed aerobiological and microbiological analyses on organic natural materials, combined with a microclimate monitoring, were conducted to evaluate the influence of temperature and relative humidity levels within the Palace in the conspicuous growth and diffusion of microorganisms. Fungal and bacterial colonies damaging materials, mainly affected by the sudden fluctuations of hygrothermal values, were found to widely exceed Italian and international recommended levels for good air quality for both artworks and human beings. Understand their impact on human health would be strictly necessary to reduce biological risks for museum staff and cultural heritage users, but consequently to improve indoor air quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a comprehensive decision support tool based advanced monitoring system is developed to support transition to smart greenhouses for sustainable and clean food production. The decision framework aims to optimally control and manage the microclimate environments of smart connected greenhouses, where each greenhouse is defined as a self-water producing through an enhanced water desalination process. The main advantage of the current approach lies in the ability of the greenhouses to produce their water loads locally. This paper aims to develop an efficient decision tool able of performing specific monitoring and control functionalities to optimize the operation of the greenhouses where the aim is the energy and water savings. A decision model is implemented for the precise regulation and control of the indoor microclimate defining the optimal growth conditions for the crops. Furthermore, a predictive algorithm is developed to simulate in real time the operation of the greenhouses under various conditions, to assess the response of the system to storage dynamics and renewable sources, as well to control the complex indoor microclimate, energy and water flows, as well to optimize the crops growth. The developed tool is tested through a case study where the influences of climate data on the operation of the whole network are analyzed via numerical results.

The territory of the study is the Tunkinsky intermountain basin (South-Western Baikal region, Republic of Buryatia) which belongs to the area of sporadic (island) distribution of permafrost. Soil temperature controls many biotic and abiotic processes in it, so it is important to monitor the freezing and thawing regimes in peat and mineral soils. The object of the study is coarse-humic cryogenic soils on sandy lacustrine-alluvial sediments. The first site was represented by natural coarse-humic cryogenic soils under spruce forest, while the second site was organized on the area where in 1960s the forest had been destroyed and the soils were ploughed. At the end of XX century, the arable lands were abandoned, and now they are covered with steppe grasses (the long fallow). Both sites are located on the permafrost. The atmospheric-soil measuring complex was used to study the state of both the perennial and seasonal permafrost at these two sites. The soil temperatures were measured in automatic mode with a time interval of 1 hour from July 1, 2013 to June 30, 2017 along the soil profile from the surface down to a depth of 320 cm. Anthropogenic interference on one of the sites resulted in changes in vegetation cover, the soil moisture as well as the morphological structure and granulometric composition of the upper part of the soil layer. This caused changes in the temperature regime of the permafrost and its degradation with lowering of its upper limit. The soil on the long fallow is better warmed up and cools down faster than it takes place under the spruce forest. As a result of this, the maximum annual temperature on the surface here is higher by 10 °C, while at a depth of 320 cm – by 5 °C, and the minimum annual temperature on the surface is lower by 7 °C, while at a depth of 320 cm – by 1 °C. On the anthropogenically disturbed area, the warm period (at the soil temperature above 0 °C) on the surface is, on the average, by 22 days longer than on the natural lot. These differences are observed at all depths. As a result, the perennial permafrost is retained under the spruce forest below 130 cm throughout the year (soil temperature −0.2 ÷ −0.9 °C), while on the fallow the zero isotherm during seasonal thawing falls much deeper 320 cm, and the soil in the layer of 240–320 cm warms up to 2–5 °C.

• Salt weathering of tuff was investigated in underground cultural heritage. • Efflorescences and crusts are made of mixed sulfates, mostly hydrated, in part rare. • Salt source and variation are related to lithological variability and stone decay. • Salt occurrence and seasonality depend on microclimate changes in time and space. Salt weathering is one of the most damaging processes affecting stone conservation and represents an extensively debated topic in heritage science. The main subject of previous research is the built heritage, whereas other types of assets are often neglected, such as underground cultural heritage. This paper introduces an investigation of stone decay in the subterranean environment focused on salt weathering, its patterns, compositional features, and variability in time and space, aiming at finding its driving forces in the rock properties and environmental setting. Field explorations and the mineralogical analysis of salt efflorescences and crusts were integrated by the petrographic, geochemical, and petrophysical characterization of the rock substrates, a microclimate monitoring, and the chemical analysis of groundwater and rainwater. The subject of study is the underground archaeological-historical site of Yoshimi Hyaku Ana in Japan, a complex of Kofun tombs of the 6th–7th century and galleries of the WWII era. The site is affected by intense salt weathering, involving efflorescences and crusts composed of mixed soluble sulfates, mostly hydrated: gypsum, alunogen, alum-(Na), halotrichite, epsomite, polyhalite, tamarugite, thenardite, and mirabilite. They derive principally from the dissolution of rock-forming minerals and components (pyrite, glass, feldspars, etc.) from the Miocene volcanic tuffs into which the site is excavated. The tuffs show a certain lithological diversity (e.g., glass amount and chemico-mineralogical composition) that controls the space variability of salt composition. Another major influencing factor is the underground microclimate, which also affects the time variability and seasonality of salt weathering. The innermost underground areas have an extremely high relative humidity (~100%) and are essentially salt-free, whereas, nearby the site entrances, the wider fluctuations of air temperature and humidity create conditions for salt crystallization in the dry winter season and deliquescence in summer. Depending on the solubility of each salt phase, cycles of crystallization/dissolution and hydration/dehydration can occur both seasonally and in the short-term, causing severe stresses to the stone and damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The monitoring and control of thermo-hygrometric indoor conditions is necessary for an adequate preservation of cultural heritage. The European standard EN 15757:2010 specifies a procedure for determining if seasonal patterns of relative humidity (RH) and temperature are adequate for the long-term preservation of hygroscopic materials on display at museums, archives, libraries or heritage buildings. This procedure is based on the characterization of the seasonal patterns and the calculation of certain control limits, so that it is possible to assess whether certain changes in the microclimate can be harmful for the preventive conservation of artworks, which would lead to the implementation of corrective actions. In order to discuss the application of this standard, 27 autonomous data-loggers were located in different points at the Archaeological Museum of l’Almoina (Valencia). The HVAC system (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) at the museum tries to reach certain homogeneous environment, which becomes a challenge because parts of the ruins are covered by a skylight that produces a greenhouse effect in summer, resulting in severe thermo-hygrometric gradients. Based on the analysis of temperatures recorded during 16 months, the air conditions in this museum are discussed according to the standard EN 15757:2010, and some corrective measures are proposed to improve the conservation conditions. Although this standard is basically intended for data recorded from a single sensor, an alternative approach proposed in this work is to find zones inside the museum with a homogeneous microclimate and to discuss next the average values collected in each area. A methodology is presented to optimize the application of this standard in places with a complex microclimate like this case, when multiple sensors are located at different positions.

Adequate thermic conditions are required for the preventive conservation of artworks, but such optimum conditions cannot always be achieved in historical buildings such as ancient churches. In those cases, it is of interest to assess the potential risk of punctual changes in indoor environments that can be harmful to artworks. These conditions can be assessed by means of a microclimate monitoring system comprised of a set of energy-efficient wireless sensors connected to the cloud using IoT techniques. This approach was followed at the baroque church of Saint Thomas and Saint Philip Neri in Valencia (Spain). A set of 26 wireless nodes was installed, which recorded values of temperature and relative humidity every hour for a period of 7 months. Small differences of temperature were obtained among sensors, so that an efficient methodology based on principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for the characterization of similarities and dissimilarities between sensors. Daily ranges of temperatures were studied as well as mean trajectories, differences between days of the week, and changes in the correlation structure of daily median values over time. Results provide a framework for an efficient characterization of temperatures in heritage buildings based on a network of wireless sensors. Such a framework is useful to assess the potential risk of temperature fluctuations on the preventive conservation of historical buildings and artworks.

Plants are primary resources for oxygen and foods whose production is fundamental for our life. However, diseases and pests may interfere with plant growth and cause a significant reduction of both the quality and quantity of agriculture products. Increasing agricultural productivity is crucial for poverty reduction and food security improvements. For this reason, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development gives a central role to agriculture by promoting a strong technological innovation for advancing sustainable practices at the plant level. To accomplish this aim, recently, wearable sensors and flexible electronics have been extended from humans to plants for measuring elongation, microclimate, and stressing factors that may affect the plant’s healthy growth. Unexpectedly, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), which are very popular in health monitoring applications ranging from civil infrastructures to the human body, are still overlooked for the agriculture sector. In this work, for the first time, plant wearables based on FBG technology are proposed for the continuous and simultaneous monitoring of plant growth and environmental parameters (i.e., temperature and humidity) in real settings. The promising results demonstrated the feasibility of FBG-based sensors to work in real situations by holding the promise to advance continuous and accurate plant health growth monitoring techniques.

The use of wireless technologies in the field of agriculture, or so-called smart or precision agriculture, is considered as one of the main efforts applied nowadays to multiply the food production on earth. However, wireless sensor network (WSN) technology is still at its early development stage and its application in agriculture and food industry is still rare due to the lack of farmers’ awareness and outreach about the matter. This paper presents a new agro-sensor named AgriLogger with an aim to collect, store for long periods and transmit agrometeorological data represented by temperature and relative humidity in remote areas hard to reach and not served by telecommunication networks. The sensor exhibits long battery life, in the order of 10 years, thanks to low consumption technologies and to hardware sleep/wake up approach. It can be remotely placed on preselected sites through a customized drone. This latter, equipped with a dedicated payload, can then return on the sites where sensors have been placed, and, while hovering, wakes up the single devices and uploads their collected data through local wireless network. Field tests have demonstrated that the sensor, after being placed manually in two different positions, inside and outside a vineyard canopy, is able to collect and store successfully agrometeorological data like temperature and relative humidity. Moreover, the use of a drone potentially allows the collection of data from remote areas and, therefore, is able to provide a periodical monitoring of agro-ecological conditions.

Indoor microclimate diagnosis allows to understand the indoor-outdoor building microclimate interactions and to evaluate the extent of indoor hygrothermal variability caused by building use. Moreover, since the cumulative physical deterioration of the building envelope plays a relevant role in altering the indoor microclimate and building thermal performance, it is essential to combine both building envelope and indoor microclimate monitoring in an integrated diagnostic approach. The microclimate diagnosis of the Vleeshuis museum main exhibition hall here discussed is based on infield instrumental environmental monitoring and Infrared thermography (IRT) on the building masonries. The IRT was integrated with the analysis of the building documentation. Further, the microclimate analysis was performed by combining the conventional microclimate data analysis with statistical tests. The integrated diagnosis as presented in this study allowed to evaluate the long-term indoor microclimate variability consequent on outdoor and indoor heat and moisture loads variation as well as the identification of the sources of infiltrative water in the building masonries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diversity in urban geometry can create significant variation in microclimatic conditions. Especially, in tropical warm-humid context, deep urban canyons with variable building heights perform better than uniform canyons, because taller buildings rising above those around them reduce solar gain and enhance wind speed at the pedestrian level. Field measurements in Dhaka comparing the varying traditional urban forms with the more regular formal residential areas have revealed an average air temperature (Ta) difference of 3.3 °C and a maximum difference of 6.2 °C, and a mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) difference of 10.0 °C. The aim of this paper is to understand the responsiveness of the microclimate simulation tool ENVI-met V4 in identifying the variation in urban geometry as reported in the field measurements. The study aims to make specific comparisons between the measured and the simulated data by analysing a particular challenge in complex geometry. It attempts to demonstrate how ENVI-met could benefit from using the correct input as the boundary condition. While the modelling tool aims to produce good results by using synoptic weather information as boundary conditions, this study suggests that it is important to use representative data from the actual site and that hourly input of climatic variables as boundary information can produce the best results. Results show that modelling is able to predict the relative variations in Tmrt conditions between sites, although highly overestimated. However, in terms of Ta, modelling was unable to produce any variations between different urban geometry characteristics. This indicates that, although ENVI-met can produce sufficiently good results in predicting Ta when hourly forcing is used, it is unable to distinguish between the precise details in urban geometry features that can cause significant variations in microclimatic conditions in real situations. Therefore, further assessment of microclimatic variables is needed for using such modelling techniques in order to evaluate the impact of diversity in urban geometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decades, the very fast improvement of the analytical instrumentation has led to the possibility of quickly and easily getting a lot of data; in turn, the need of advanced statistical methods suitable to extract the full information furnished by instruments has increased. Such kind of data treatments is particularly important in any case of continuous monitoring of one or more parameters, so the microclimate monitoring is a typical example for this application. Microclimate control is essential in the conservation of Cultural Heritage (CH), but decisions on optimal conservation parameters cannot base only on existing norms that do not take into account the environment's history. Often CH has survived for many centuries in conditions that must be considered risky but also a stable state (equilibrium) resulting from a long adaptation process during which a more or less heavy damage occurred to the materials. Any successive change of microclimate parameters has interrupted this equilibrium conditions and has induced further damage to material until a new equilibrium is reached; dimension and frequency of changes are proportional to the expected damage. This thermodynamic consideration provides the background for a CH conservation project based on microclimate control and highlights the importance of environmental monitoring for the identification of equilibrium parameters to be maintained. In 2010, we monitored the microclimate of an important historical building in Rome, the Mamertino Carcer, before its opening to visitors. One year later, we repeated the monitoring in the presence of visitors, and here, we present a careful choice of multivariate data treatments adopted for an enough, simple and immediate evaluation of the microclimatic changes; this allows an easier understanding also for persons with not too deep scientific background, such as Superintendents and, in turn, really useful information to provide suggestions for a conservation project. Results evidenced the expected loss of isolation of the site that occurred by opening to visitors; this led to wider excursions of both temperature and relative humidity and, in turn, to a worsening of the conservative conditions. Surely, a monitoring of particulate matter, correlated to air fluxes and, in turn, to microclimate, is of fundamental importance for the conservation of frescoes and will be object of one of our future diagnostic interventions in the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preventive conservation requires monitoring and control of the parameters involved in the deterioration process, mainly temperature and relative humidity. It is important to characterise an archaeological site prior to carrying out comparative studies in the future for preventive conservation, either by regular studies to verify whether the conditions are constant, or occasional ones when the boundary conditions are altered. There are numerous covered archaeological sites, but few preventive conservation works that give special attention to the type of cover installed. In particular, there is no background of microclimatic studies in sites that are in the ground and, as in the Plaza de l’Almoina (Valencia, Spain), are buried and partially covered by a transparent roof. A large effect of the transparent cover was found by the sensors located below this area, with substantial increases in temperature and a decrease in the relative humidity during the day. Surrounding zones also have values above the recommended temperature values. On the other hand, the influence of a buried water drainage line near the site is notable, causing an increase in relative humidity levels in the surrounding areas. Multivariate statistical analyses enabled us to characterise the microclimate of the archaeological site, allowing future testing to determine whether the conservation conditions have been altered.

RelicNet, highly reliable wireless sensor system for microclimate monitoring in wildland cultural heritage sites was proposed. RelicNet organized the whole system as a multi-tiered delay-tolerant network （DTN）, and provided a cross-tier data reliability maintenance framework to ensure the reliability of each step of data delivery. The currently de- ployed system consists of 241 sensors covering 57 typical caves of the Mogao Grottoes, a well-known wildland cul- tural heritage site in the Gobi desert. The microclimate change patterns in caves were analyzed using the data col- lected by the system, and the reliability and long lifetime of the system were verified through network and battery performance evaluations.

Purpose. A study of factors affecting on zonation, qualitative and quantitative composition of wireless sensor network elements for microclimate monitoring under clothing space in the system «body - special clothing - environment» in real life setting. Methodology. Analysis of factors that influence on zonation, qualitative and quantitative composition of wireless sensor network elements for microclimate monitoring under clothing space. Findings. The concept of the arrangement of wireless sensor network for microclimate monitoring under clothing space was proposed. The example of area-differentiated arrangement was introduced. Scientific novelty. For the first time a multicenter study of the factors under clothing space was carried out with a view to wireless sensor networks using for the monitoring parameters and impact assessment of clothing on efficiency of employee productivity. Practical value. Components and new design development, as whole, functional clothing for special needs with integrated wireless sensor networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The devastating effects of global climate change on crop production and exponential population growth pose a major challenge to agricultural yields. To cope with this problem, crop performance monitoring is becoming increasingly necessary. In this scenario, the use of sensors and biosensors capable of detecting changes in plant fitness and predicting the evolution of their morphology and physiology has proven to be a useful strategy to increase crop yields. Flexible sensors and nanomaterials have inspired the emerging fields of wearable and on-plant portable devices that provide continuous and accurate long-term sensing of morphological, physiological, biochemical, and environmental parameters. This review provides an overview of novel plant sensing technologies by discussing wearable and integrated devices proposed for engineering plant and monitoring its morphological traits and physiological processes, as well as plant-environment interactions. For each application scenario, the state-of-the-art sensing solutions are grouped according to the plant organ on which they have been installed highlighting their main technological advantages and features. Finally, future opportunities, challenges and perspectives are discussed. We anticipate that the application of this technology in agriculture will provide more accurate measurements for farmers and plant scientists with the ability to track crop performance in real time. All of this information will be essential to enable rapid optimization of plants development through tailored treatments that improve overall plant health even under stressful conditions, with the ultimate goal of increasing crop productivity in a more sustainable manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detailed monitoring of subterranean microclimatic and hydrological conditions can delineate factors influencing speleothem-based climate proxy data and helps in their interpretation. Multi-annual monitoring of water stable isotopes, air temperature, relative humidity, drip rates and P CO2 in surface, soil and cave air gives detailed insight into dripwater isotopes, temperature and ventilation dynamics in Mawmluh Cave, NE India. Water isotopes vary seasonally in response to monsoonal rainfall. Most negative values are observed during late Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), with a less than one-month lag between ISM rainfall and drip response. Two dry season and two less-well distinguishable wet season dynamic ventilation regimes are identified in Mawmluh Cave. Cave air temperatures higher than surface air result in chimney ventilation during dry season nights. Dry season days show reduced ventilation due to cool cave air relative to surface air and cold-air lake development. Both, high water flow and cooler-than-surface cave air temperatures result in air inflow during wet season nights. Wet season daytime ventilation is governed by river flow, but is prone to stagnation and development of cold air lakes. CO 2 monitoring indicates that P CO2 levels vary at diurnal to annual scale. Mawmluh Cave seems to act as CO 2 sink during part of the dry season. While very likely, additional data is needed to establish whether wet season cave air CO 2 levels rise above atmospheric values. Drip behavior is highly nonlinear, related to effective recharge dynamics, and further complicated by human influence on the epikarst aquifer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring efficiently urban microclimates is necessary for rendering cities resilient against climate change impacts. Aiming to retrieve data of high spatial resolution, mobile monitoring techniques have been introduced and applied within various urban contexts around the globe. Mobile monitoring campaigns may indeed contribute toward a high-granularity evaluation of the intra-urban characteristics of each city. In addition, it can help exploit resiliency planning at different aggregation levels when implemented in conjunction with traditional monitoring systems, such as fixed stations and satellites. Under this scenario, this study presents for the first time a systematic and critical review of the recent and most comprehensive mobile monitoring systems, and the corresponding field campaigns and protocols followed. The reviewed monitoring systems are developed on either motorized (e.g. cars, vans) or non-motorized (e.g. bicycles, carts, humans) agents for measuring the main parameters regulating urban canopy layers with respect to the (i) hygrothermal environment, (ii) air quality, (iii) light pollution, (iv) noise pollution. Overall, 94 articles are analyzed for concluding to the current state of the art, the corresponding scientific gaps, and proposed future research paths. Most of the reported monitoring systems are developed to monitor only one environmental domain, while the lack of standardized monitoring protocols is found to be the biggest challenge that needs to be addressed for minimizing biases and rendering the outcomes of different studies comparable. Relevant technological advancements and human-centric frameworks are further discussed aiming to exploit mobile monitoring for establishing efficient decision-making and risk assessment within urban environments. • Systematic literature review of urban mobile monitoring is performed for the first time. • Thermal environment, air quality, noise and light pollution monitoring protocols are reviewed. • The review reports on monitoring campaigns performed at a global scale. • The challenges and future paths for an efficient urban mobile monitoring are devised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The karst of Sorbas (SE Spain) is one of the most important gypsum areas worldwide. Its underground karst network comprises over 100 km of cave passages. Rounded smooth forms, condensation cupola and pendant-like features appear on the ceiling of the shallower passages as a result of gypsum dissolution by condensation water. Meanwhile, gypsum speleothems formed by capillarity, evaporation and aerosol deposition such as coralloids, gypsum crusts and rims are frequently observed closer to the passage floors. The role of condensation–dissolution mechanisms in the evolution of geomorphological features observed in the upper cave levels has been studied by means of long-term micro-erosion meter (MEM) measurements, direct collection and analysis of condensation waters, and micrometeorological monitoring. Monitoring of erosion at different heights on gypsum walls of the Cueva del Agua reveals that the gypsum surface retreated up to 0.033 mm yr − 1 in MEM stations located in the higher parts of the cave walls. The surface retreat was negligible at the lowest sites, suggesting higher dissolution rates close to the cave ceiling, where warmer and moister air flows. Monitoring of microclimatic parameters and direct measurements of condensation water were performed in the Covadura Cave system in order to estimate seasonal patterns of condensation. Direct measurements of condensation water dripping from a metal plate placed in the central part of the El Bosque Gallery of Covadura Cave indicate that condensation takes place mainly between July and November in coincidence with rainless periods. The estimated gypsum surface lowering due to this condensation water is 0.0026 mm yr − 1 . Microclimatic monitoring in the same area shows differences in air temperature and humidity of the lower parts of the galleries (colder and drier) with respect to the cave ceiling (warmer and wetter). This thermal sedimentation controls the intensity of the condensation–evaporation mechanisms at different heights in the cave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]